View source for List of Inventions and Discoveries in Ancient and Modern Pakistan and Islamic India

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! style="background:#white" align="center"|<div style="margin-left:10px;">''<font color="black" style="font-size:; font-family:tahoma;>[[File:Cscr-featured.png|15px]] Genetic Bar Graph and Genetic Map of Pakistan Exhibiting the Unique Culture and Racial Characteristics of the Pakistani People [[File:Cscr-featured.png|15px]]</font>''</div>
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*Rosenberg, Noah A.; Mahajan, Saurabh; Gonzalez-Quevedo, Catalina; Blum, Michael G. B.; Nino-Rosales, Laura; Ninis, Vasiliki; Das, Parimal; Hegde, Madhuri; Molinari, Laura; Zapata, Gladys; Weber, James L.; Belmont, John W.; Patel, Pragna I. (2006). ''[https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.0020215 Low Levels of Genetic Divergence across Geographically and Linguistically Diverse Populations from India]''. PLoS Genetics. 2 (12): e215. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0020215. ISSN 1553-7390.
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'''[[#Astronomy & Universe (4)|Astronomy]]''' •
'''[[#Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)|Agriculture, Food & Beverage]]''' •
'''[[#Biology (2)|Biology]]''' (''[[#Paleontology (10)|Paleontology]]'') •
'''[[#Chemistry (5)|Chemistry]]''' •
'''[[#Computing (4)|Computing]]''' (''[[#Video-gaming (1)|Video-gaming]] • [[#Board Games (1)|Board-games]]'') •
'''[[#Mathematics (3)|Mathematics]]''' •
'''[[#Medicines (1)|Medicine]]''' (''[[#Disease Eradication (1)|Disease Eradication]]'' • ''[[#Genetics & Disease (5)|Genetics & Disease]]'' • ''[[#Medical Instruments (6)|Instruments]]'') •
'''[[#Physics (5)|Physics]]''' •
'''Engineering''' (''[[#Naval Engineering (1)|Naval]]'' • ''[[#Mechanical Engineering (7)|Mechanical]]'' • ''[[#Handtool Engineering (3)|Handtool]]'' • ''[[#Textile Engineering (3)|Textile]]'' (''[[#Clothing (2)|Clothing]]'') • ''[[#Architectural Engineering (4)|Architectural]]'') •
'''[[#Sport & Recreation (2)|Sport & Recreation]]''' •
'''[[#Disputed (2)|Disputed]]''' •
[[#Further Reading|Further Reading]] •
[[#Sources|Sources]] •
(''[[#Footnotes|Footnotes]]'' • ''[[#References|References]]'' • ''[[#Acknowledgements|Acknowledgements]]'') •
[[#External Links|External Links]] •
'''''Total Inventions & Discoveries Listed: 77'''''
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<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;"> For many non-Pakistanis, the idea of what and who Pakistanis are can often be a confusing one, since historically speaking Pakistan has never really been known as ''"Pakistan"'' throughout much of it's 65,000 year old<ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"The study showed that there were two major migrations into India in the last 10,000 years. The first one originated from the Zagros region in south-western Iran (which has the world's first evidence for goat domestication) and brought agriculturists, most likely herders, to India. This would have been between 7,000 and 3,000BCE. These Zagrosian herders mixed with the earlier inhabitants of the subcontinent - the First Indians, descendants of the Out of Africa (OoA) migrants who had reached India around 65,000 years ago - and together, they went on to create the Harappan civilisation"''.
#Tony Joseph (30th December 2018). ''[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-46616574 How ancient DNA may rewrite prehistory in India]''. BBC News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191202112330/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-46616574 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved December 2nd, 2019.</ref> history (in fact it was only officially known as Pakistan in 1947;<ref name="MoranHarris2007">Robert T. Moran; Philip Robert Harris; Sarah Virgilia Moran (2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y01Ubn9LACEC&pg=PA457&dq=pakistan+%22was+founded+in+1947%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj56s7vqvvjAhXxsnEKHSGVBYsQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=pakistan%20%22was%20founded%20in%201947%22&f=false Managing Cultural Differences: Global Leadership Strategies for the 21st Century]''. Routledge. p. 457. ISBN 978-0-7506-8247-3.</ref> and is an anagram of the ancient states '''P'''unjab, '''A'''fghania, '''K'''ashmir, '''S'''indh and Balochis'''tan'''<ref name="Jalal2017">Jalal, Ayesha (2017). ''[http://oxfordre.com/asianhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277727-e-114 The Creation of Pakistan]''. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History. Department of History, Tufts University. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.114.</ref>). Indeed it's been known by a series of different names; Mehrgarth (c. 7000 BC—c. 2000 BC<ref name="West2010">Barbara A. West (19 May 2010). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA519&dq=Mehrgarh&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjBmYbSiajkAhVHTcAKHcIuBfgQ6AEIQDAE#v=onepage&q=Mehrgarh&f=false Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania]''. Infobase Publishing. p. 519. ISBN 978-1-4381-1913-7.</ref>), the Indus Valley (c. 3300 BC—c. 1300 BC<ref name="Alikuzai2013">Hamid Wahed Alikuzai (October 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YZJcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA149&dq=Indus+Valley+3300+1300&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjLiLffiqjkAhXBgVwKHXLXDJMQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=Indus%20Valley%203300%201300&f=false A Concise History of Afghanistan in 25 Volumes]''. Trafford Publishing. p. 149. ISBN 978-1-4907-1441-7.</ref>), West India and even India itself (in fact the word ''"India"'' itself is not indigenous to South Asia, but comes from old Persian and ancient Greek,<ref group="n.">According to several sources, including the ''"Oxford English Dictionary"'', the name ''"India"'' has been used since the 16th century and is Latin, taken from the ancient Greek word ''"Indike"'';† itself taken from the ancient Persian word ''"Hind"'', derived from the Sanskrit word ''"Sindhu"'', meaning ''"river"''‡ (referring to the Indus River↑ which is to be found in Sindh, modern-day Pakistan).

:'''Quote''': ''"India (ˈɪndɪə)[a. L [Latin]. India, a. Gr [Greek]. Ἰνδία, f. Ἰνδός the (river) Indus, a. Pers [Persian]. hind, OPers [Old Persian]. (Achæmenian) hiñd'u, Zend heñdu, Skr [Sanskrit]. sindhu `river', spec [specifically]. the river Indus; hence the region of the Indus, the province Sindh; gradually extended by Persians and Greeks to all the country east of the Indus. OE. had India from L.; but the ME. form from Fr. was Ynde, Inde, Ind (cf. Afric), now archaic and poetic; the early 16th c. adaptation of L. was Indie, Indy (cf. Italy, Germany), of which the pl. Indies is still in use. The current use of India appears to date from the 16th c., and may partly reflect Spanish, or Portuguese usage.]"''—Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd Edition, CD-ROM version.‡

The word ''"Hinduism"'' isn't even an indigenous word either in South Asia and originally meant something completely different to how it is used today (i.e. it is now used to refer to a religion or religious group);↓ instead it is a foreign word ''"building on centuries-old usages of the word Hindu"'' (the latter of which itself in the 16th century became primarily a religious ''"rather than ethnic, geographic, or cultural"'' identification as it was used previously before (i.e. it exclusively arose from foreigners who were referring to the Sindhi people of the Sindh region of Pakistan); ''"[s]ince the late 19th century, Hindus have reacted to the term Hinduism in several ways"'' with ''"[s]ome hav[ing] rejected it in favour of indigenous formulations"'' whereas others have simply accepted it).↓

#†Catherine Clémentin-Ojha (2014). ''[http://samaj.revues.org/3717 ‘India, that is Bharat…’: One Country, Two Names]''. South Asia Multidisciplinary Academic Journal. Issue No. 10. ISSN 1960-6060. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20150928035644/http://samaj.revues.org/3717 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved December 2nd, 2019.
#‡''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hScAkAEACAAJ&dq=9780199563838&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiSuenD2prmAhWXiFwKHZjMALsQ6AEINjAC Oxford English Dictionary: Single User Version]''. Oxford University Press. January 2005. pp. (CD–ROM, hence no page number, search "India" within software). ISBN 978-0-19-522217-3.
#↑Walter Bruno Henning; Mary Boyce; Ilya Gershevitch (1970). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e3UBAAAAMAAJ&q=W-B-Henning-Memorial-Volume&dq=W-B-Henning-Memorial-Volume&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiyoLOC1JrmAhXPT8AKHcAVC2wQ6AEIKTAA W. B. Henning Memorial Volume]''. Lund Humphries. pp. 447–450.
#↓Kathleen Kuiper Manager, Arts and Culture (15 August 2010). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=c8PJFLeURhsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+culture+of+india+kathleen+kuiper&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjJpvjVzZfmAhWWQkEAHQcHBXsQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q=the%20culture%20of%20india%20kathleen%20kuiper&f=false The Culture of India]''. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. pp. 85–86. ISBN 978-1-61530-149-2.</ref> meaning ''"people of the Indus"''—it should be noted that the modern-day country of India—born in 1947<ref name="MoranHarris2007">Robert T. Moran; Philip Robert Harris; Sarah Virgilia Moran (2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y01Ubn9LACEC&pg=PA457&dq=pakistan+%22was+founded+in+1947%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj56s7vqvvjAhXxsnEKHSGVBYsQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=pakistan%20%22was%20founded%20in%201947%22&f=false Managing Cultural Differences: Global Leadership Strategies for the 21st Century]''. Routledge. p. 457. ISBN 978-0-7506-8247-3.</ref>—has culturally appropriated this name, despite the Indus river basin having nothing to do with the majority of its people with ''"Ganga-Yamuna"'' or ''"Narmada"'' being far more appropriate names as these are the main river basins of that country<ref name="Parvez Mahmood (May 17th, 2019).">Parvez Mahmood (May 17th, 2019). ''[https://www.thefridaytimes.com/our-lost-heritage-i/?fbclid=IwAR2MEoTm4QfQaESiqgaSEYlvM9zH5q3q0joJBXOackyghN2MWEVyWSviQSE Our lost heritage – I]''. The Friday Times. ''[http://archive.is/aEe0y Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved July 19th, 2019.</ref>). The easiest way to understand Pakistani identity is to understand that Pakistanis are a people who are genetically,<ref name="RosenbergMahajan2006">Rosenberg, Noah A.; Mahajan, Saurabh; Gonzalez-Quevedo, Catalina; Blum, Michael G. B.; Nino-Rosales, Laura; Ninis, Vasiliki; Das, Parimal; Hegde, Madhuri; Molinari, Laura; Zapata, Gladys; Weber, James L.; Belmont, John W.; Patel, Pragna I. (2006). ''[https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.0020215 Low Levels of Genetic Divergence across Geographically and Linguistically Diverse Populations from India]''. PLoS Genetics. 2 (12): e215. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0020215. ISSN 1553-7390.</ref> linguistically,<ref group="n.">
:''A clear difference in languages is a clear indication that the culture differs from that of India. The languages of Pakistan are clearly different to those of India.''
The languages of Pakistan can be seen here:
#''[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=Pakistan Languages of Pakistan]''. Ethnologue. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20060321045056/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=Pakistan WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved December 2nd, 2019.
The languages of India can be seen here:
#''[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=India Languages of India]''. Ethnologue. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20050109084200/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=India WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved December 2nd, 2019.</ref> racially,<ref name="RosenbergMahajan2006"/> ethnically,<ref name="RosenbergMahajan2006"/> culturally<ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religious philosophies, social customs and literary traditions. They neither intermarry nor eat together, and indeed they belong to two different civilisations which are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions"''. 
#Secunder Kermani (18th August 2017). ''[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-40961603 How Jinnah's ideology shapes Pakistan's identity]''. BBC News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191202113934/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-40961603 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved December 2nd, 2019.</ref> and religiously distinct<ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religious philosophies, social customs and literary traditions. They neither intermarry nor eat together, and indeed they belong to two different civilisations which are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions"''. 
#Secunder Kermani (18th August 2017). ''[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-40961603 How Jinnah's ideology shapes Pakistan's identity]''. BBC News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191202113934/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-40961603 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved December 2nd, 2019.</ref> from other subcontinent people and therefore themselves form a very unique identity.<ref group="n.">For example, have a look at the accompanying images on the genetic map of Pakistan and the genetic bar graph of Pakistan. Compared to India, most Pakistanis share a common unified genetic heritage (with the exception of the Kalash people who's genetics are so unique they do not fully match either those in Pakistan or the modern-day nation state of India).
#Rosenberg, Noah A.; Mahajan, Saurabh; Gonzalez-Quevedo, Catalina; Blum, Michael G. B.; Nino-Rosales, Laura; Ninis, Vasiliki; Das, Parimal; Hegde, Madhuri; Molinari, Laura; Zapata, Gladys; Weber, James L.; Belmont, John W.; Patel, Pragna I. (2006). ''[https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.0020215 Low Levels of Genetic Divergence across Geographically and Linguistically Diverse Populations from India]''. PLoS Genetics. 2 (12): e215. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0020215. ISSN 1553-7390.</ref> The people who live in Pakistan now have remained the same as those that were there for the past 65,000 years, but unlike other subcontinent peoples Pakistanis have added admixtures of new DNA from the various large scale historical migrations.<ref group="n.">See this article for more information:
:::'''Quote:''' ''"These Zagrosian herders mixed with the earlier inhabitants of the subcontinent - the First Indians, descendants of the Out of Africa (OoA) migrants who had reached India around 65,000 years ago - and together, they went on to create the Harappan civilisation...the best way to understand the Indian population is to imagine it as a pizza, with the first Indians forming its base. Though the base of this rather irregular pizza is thin in some places and thick in others, it still serves as the support that the rest of the pizza is built upon because studies show that 50% to 65% of the genetic ancestry of Indians derives from the First Indians."''
#Tony Joseph (30th December 2018). ''[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-46616574 How ancient DNA may rewrite prehistory in India]''. BBC News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191202112330/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-46616574 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved December 2nd, 2019.
Also see this source's bar graph (cited within this article on ''"Materia Islamica"'' itself at the top of the page) where it shows the genetic variation amongst Pakistanis and the differences between Pakistani groups versus Indian groups (Pakistan's genetic heritage is far more diverse than that of modern-day India's):
#Rosenberg, Noah A.; Mahajan, Saurabh; Gonzalez-Quevedo, Catalina; Blum, Michael G. B.; Nino-Rosales, Laura; Ninis, Vasiliki; Das, Parimal; Hegde, Madhuri; Molinari, Laura; Zapata, Gladys; Weber, James L.; Belmont, John W.; Patel, Pragna I. (2006). ''[https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.0020215 Low Levels of Genetic Divergence across Geographically and Linguistically Diverse Populations from India]''. PLoS Genetics. 2 (12): e215. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0020215. ISSN 1553-7390.</ref> The recorded history of Pakistan is thus older than the history of modern-day India. Given its extensive age, a significant number of inventions and discoveries have thus rightfully been attributed to Pakistan (since they ''originate'' in its lands) and not modern-day India.
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<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;"> For many non-Pakistanis, the idea of what and who Pakistanis are can often be a confusing one, since historically speaking Pakistan has never really been known as ''"Pakistan"'' throughout much of it's 65,000 year old<ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"The study showed that there were two major migrations into India in the last 10,000 years. The first one originated from the Zagros region in south-western Iran (which has the world's first evidence for goat domestication) and brought agriculturists, most likely herders, to India. This would have been between 7,000 and 3,000BCE. These Zagrosian herders mixed with the earlier inhabitants of the subcontinent - the First Indians, descendants of the Out of Africa (OoA) migrants who had reached India around 65,000 years ago - and together, they went on to create the Harappan civilisation"''.
#Tony Joseph (30th December 2018). ''[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-46616574 How ancient DNA may rewrite prehistory in India]''. BBC News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191202112330/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-46616574 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved December 2nd, 2019.</ref> history (in fact it was only officially known as Pakistan in 1947;<ref name="MoranHarris2007">Robert T. Moran; Philip Robert Harris; Sarah Virgilia Moran (2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y01Ubn9LACEC&pg=PA457&dq=pakistan+%22was+founded+in+1947%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj56s7vqvvjAhXxsnEKHSGVBYsQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=pakistan%20%22was%20founded%20in%201947%22&f=false Managing Cultural Differences: Global Leadership Strategies for the 21st Century]''. Routledge. p. 457. ISBN 978-0-7506-8247-3.</ref> and is an anagram of the ancient states '''P'''unjab, '''A'''fghania, '''K'''ashmir, '''S'''indh and Balochis'''tan'''<ref name="Jalal2017">Jalal, Ayesha (2017). ''[http://oxfordre.com/asianhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277727-e-114 The Creation of Pakistan]''. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History. Department of History, Tufts University. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.114.</ref>). Indeed it's been known by a series of different names; Mehrgarth (c. 7000 BC—c. 2000 BC<ref name="West2010">Barbara A. West (19 May 2010). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA519&dq=Mehrgarh&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjBmYbSiajkAhVHTcAKHcIuBfgQ6AEIQDAE#v=onepage&q=Mehrgarh&f=false Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania]''. Infobase Publishing. p. 519. ISBN 978-1-4381-1913-7.</ref>), the Indus Valley (c. 3300 BC—c. 1300 BC<ref name="Alikuzai2013">Hamid Wahed Alikuzai (October 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YZJcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA149&dq=Indus+Valley+3300+1300&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjLiLffiqjkAhXBgVwKHXLXDJMQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=Indus%20Valley%203300%201300&f=false A Concise History of Afghanistan in 25 Volumes]''. Trafford Publishing. p. 149. ISBN 978-1-4907-1441-7.</ref>), West India and even India itself (in fact the word ''"India"'' itself is not indigenous to South Asia, but comes from old Persian and ancient Greek,<ref group="n.">According to several sources, including the ''"Oxford English Dictionary"'', the name ''"India"'' has been used since the 16th century and is Latin, taken from the ancient Greek word ''"Indike"'';† itself taken from the ancient Persian word ''"Hind"'', derived from the Sanskrit word ''"Sindhu"'', meaning ''"river"''‡ (referring to the Indus River↑ which is to be found in Sindh, modern-day Pakistan).

:'''Quote''': ''"India (ˈɪndɪə)[a. L [Latin]. India, a. Gr [Greek]. Ἰνδία, f. Ἰνδός the (river) Indus, a. Pers [Persian]. hind, OPers [Old Persian]. (Achæmenian) hiñd'u, Zend heñdu, Skr [Sanskrit]. sindhu `river', spec [specifically]. the river Indus; hence the region of the Indus, the province Sindh; gradually extended by Persians and Greeks to all the country east of the Indus. OE. had India from L.; but the ME. form from Fr. was Ynde, Inde, Ind (cf. Afric), now archaic and poetic; the early 16th c. adaptation of L. was Indie, Indy (cf. Italy, Germany), of which the pl. Indies is still in use. The current use of India appears to date from the 16th c., and may partly reflect Spanish, or Portuguese usage.]"''—Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd Edition, CD-ROM version.‡

The word ''"Hinduism"'' isn't even an indigenous word either in South Asia and originally meant something completely different to how it is used today (i.e. it is now used to refer to a religion or religious group);↓ instead it is a foreign word ''"building on centuries-old usages of the word Hindu"'' (the latter of which itself in the 16th century became primarily a religious ''"rather than ethnic, geographic, or cultural"'' identification as it was used previously before (i.e. it exclusively arose from foreigners who were referring to the Sindhi people of the Sindh region of Pakistan); ''"[s]ince the late 19th century, Hindus have reacted to the term Hinduism in several ways"'' with ''"[s]ome hav[ing] rejected it in favour of indigenous formulations"'' whereas others have simply accepted it).↓

#†Catherine Clémentin-Ojha (2014). ''[http://samaj.revues.org/3717 ‘India, that is Bharat…’: One Country, Two Names]''. South Asia Multidisciplinary Academic Journal. Issue No. 10. ISSN 1960-6060. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20150928035644/http://samaj.revues.org/3717 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved December 2nd, 2019.
#‡''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hScAkAEACAAJ&dq=9780199563838&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiSuenD2prmAhWXiFwKHZjMALsQ6AEINjAC Oxford English Dictionary: Single User Version]''. Oxford University Press. January 2005. pp. (CD–ROM, hence no page number, search "India" within software). ISBN 978-0-19-522217-3.
#↑Walter Bruno Henning; Mary Boyce; Ilya Gershevitch (1970). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e3UBAAAAMAAJ&q=W-B-Henning-Memorial-Volume&dq=W-B-Henning-Memorial-Volume&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiyoLOC1JrmAhXPT8AKHcAVC2wQ6AEIKTAA W. B. Henning Memorial Volume]''. Lund Humphries. pp. 447–450.
#↓Kathleen Kuiper Manager, Arts and Culture (15 August 2010). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=c8PJFLeURhsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+culture+of+india+kathleen+kuiper&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjJpvjVzZfmAhWWQkEAHQcHBXsQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q=the%20culture%20of%20india%20kathleen%20kuiper&f=false The Culture of India]''. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. pp. 85–86. ISBN 978-1-61530-149-2.</ref> meaning ''"people of the Indus"''—it should be noted that the modern-day country of India—born in 1947<ref name="MoranHarris2007">Robert T. Moran; Philip Robert Harris; Sarah Virgilia Moran (2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y01Ubn9LACEC&pg=PA457&dq=pakistan+%22was+founded+in+1947%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj56s7vqvvjAhXxsnEKHSGVBYsQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=pakistan%20%22was%20founded%20in%201947%22&f=false Managing Cultural Differences: Global Leadership Strategies for the 21st Century]''. Routledge. p. 457. ISBN 978-0-7506-8247-3.</ref>—has culturally appropriated this name, despite the Indus river basin having nothing to do with the majority of its people with ''"Ganga-Yamuna"'' or ''"Narmada"'' being far more appropriate names as these are the main river basins of that country<ref name="Parvez Mahmood (May 17th, 2019).">Parvez Mahmood (May 17th, 2019). ''[https://www.thefridaytimes.com/our-lost-heritage-i/?fbclid=IwAR2MEoTm4QfQaESiqgaSEYlvM9zH5q3q0joJBXOackyghN2MWEVyWSviQSE Our lost heritage – I]''. The Friday Times. ''[http://archive.is/aEe0y Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved July 19th, 2019.</ref>). The easiest way to understand Pakistani identity is to understand that Pakistanis are a people who are genetically,<ref name="RosenbergMahajan2006">Rosenberg, Noah A.; Mahajan, Saurabh; Gonzalez-Quevedo, Catalina; Blum, Michael G. B.; Nino-Rosales, Laura; Ninis, Vasiliki; Das, Parimal; Hegde, Madhuri; Molinari, Laura; Zapata, Gladys; Weber, James L.; Belmont, John W.; Patel, Pragna I. (2006). ''[https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.0020215 Low Levels of Genetic Divergence across Geographically and Linguistically Diverse Populations from India]''. PLoS Genetics. 2 (12): e215. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0020215. ISSN 1553-7390.</ref> linguistically,<ref group="n.">
:''A clear difference in languages is a clear indication that the culture differs from that of India. The languages of Pakistan are clearly different to those of India.''
The languages of Pakistan can be seen here:
#''[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=Pakistan Languages of Pakistan]''. Ethnologue. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20060321045056/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=Pakistan WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved December 2nd, 2019.
The languages of India can be seen here:
#''[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=India Languages of India]''. Ethnologue. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20050109084200/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=India WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved December 2nd, 2019.</ref> racially,<ref name="RosenbergMahajan2006"/> ethnically,<ref name="RosenbergMahajan2006"/> culturally<ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religious philosophies, social customs and literary traditions. They neither intermarry nor eat together, and indeed they belong to two different civilisations which are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions"''. 
#Secunder Kermani (18th August 2017). ''[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-40961603 How Jinnah's ideology shapes Pakistan's identity]''. BBC News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191202113934/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-40961603 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved December 2nd, 2019.</ref> and religiously distinct<ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religious philosophies, social customs and literary traditions. They neither intermarry nor eat together, and indeed they belong to two different civilisations which are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions"''. 
#Secunder Kermani (18th August 2017). ''[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-40961603 How Jinnah's ideology shapes Pakistan's identity]''. BBC News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191202113934/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-40961603 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved December 2nd, 2019.</ref> from other subcontinent people and therefore themselves form a very unique identity.<ref group="n.">For example, have a look at the accompanying images on the genetic map of Pakistan and the genetic bar graph of Pakistan. Compared to India, most Pakistanis share a common unified genetic heritage (with the exception of the Kalash people who's genetics are so unique they do not fully match either those in Pakistan or the modern-day nation state of India).
#Rosenberg, Noah A.; Mahajan, Saurabh; Gonzalez-Quevedo, Catalina; Blum, Michael G. B.; Nino-Rosales, Laura; Ninis, Vasiliki; Das, Parimal; Hegde, Madhuri; Molinari, Laura; Zapata, Gladys; Weber, James L.; Belmont, John W.; Patel, Pragna I. (2006). ''[https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.0020215 Low Levels of Genetic Divergence across Geographically and Linguistically Diverse Populations from India]''. PLoS Genetics. 2 (12): e215. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0020215. ISSN 1553-7390.</ref> The people who live in Pakistan now have remained the same as those that were there for the past 65,000 years, but unlike other subcontinent peoples Pakistanis have added admixtures of new DNA from the various large scale historical migrations.<ref group="n.">See this article for more information:
:::'''Quote:''' ''"These Zagrosian herders mixed with the earlier inhabitants of the subcontinent - the First Indians, descendants of the Out of Africa (OoA) migrants who had reached India around 65,000 years ago - and together, they went on to create the Harappan civilisation...the best way to understand the Indian population is to imagine it as a pizza, with the first Indians forming its base. Though the base of this rather irregular pizza is thin in some places and thick in others, it still serves as the support that the rest of the pizza is built upon because studies show that 50% to 65% of the genetic ancestry of Indians derives from the First Indians."''
#Tony Joseph (30th December 2018). ''[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-46616574 How ancient DNA may rewrite prehistory in India]''. BBC News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191202112330/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-46616574 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved December 2nd, 2019.
Also see this source's bar graph (cited within this article on ''"Materia Islamica"'' itself at the top of the page) where it shows the genetic variation amongst Pakistanis and the differences between Pakistani groups versus Indian groups (Pakistan's genetic heritage is far more diverse than that of modern-day India's):
#Rosenberg, Noah A.; Mahajan, Saurabh; Gonzalez-Quevedo, Catalina; Blum, Michael G. B.; Nino-Rosales, Laura; Ninis, Vasiliki; Das, Parimal; Hegde, Madhuri; Molinari, Laura; Zapata, Gladys; Weber, James L.; Belmont, John W.; Patel, Pragna I. (2006). ''[https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.0020215 Low Levels of Genetic Divergence across Geographically and Linguistically Diverse Populations from India]''. PLoS Genetics. 2 (12): e215. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0020215. ISSN 1553-7390.</ref> The recorded history of Pakistan is thus older than the history of modern-day India. Given its extensive age, a significant number of inventions and discoveries have thus rightfully been attributed to Pakistan (since they ''originate'' in its lands) and not modern-day India.
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'''''Working Title:''' List of Inventions and Discoveries in Ancient and Modern Pakistan and Islamic India'' |
'''''Original Publisher:''' Materia Islamica'' |
'''''Publication Date:''' December 8th, 2019'' |
'''''Written by:''' Canadian786'' |
'''''Artricle N<sup>o.</sup>''' 94.''
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===Article Methodology===
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*In accordance with the principle of peer-review and the hierarchy of evidence and relevance of research papers, this list has been compiled using the best evidence available and has been taken from a range of scientific and historical research databases. The majority of the sources hence can be easily found using the DOI numbers (similar to an ISBN number for books, except which these unique identifiers identify research papers which have undergone thorough checks and re-checks through academic scholarship). This article consists of a ''List of Inventions and Discoveries in Ancient and Modern Pakistan and Islamic India''. '''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete.'''
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===Astronomy & Universe (4)===
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete.''
[[File:Nobel Prize.png|55px|left|]]
::*'''Electroweak Interaction'''—Abdus Salam (1926—1996<ref name="Duff2008">M. J. Duff (2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=meBpDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA28&dq=Abdus+Salam+1926-1996&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi8_ILtwMHjAhWmgVwKHRyFCjUQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=Abdus%20Salam%201926-1996&f=false Salam + 50: Proceedings of the Conference]''. World Scientific. pp. 28–30. ISBN 978-1-84816-190-0.</ref><ref name="Iliopoulos2017"/>) was the first to the discover the phenomenon of electroweak interaction (for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize<ref name="Coleman, Sidney (1979).">Coleman, Sidney (1979). ''"[http://www.jstor.org/stable/1749117 The 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics]"''. Science Vol. 206. Issue No. 4424 (1979): 1290-292.</ref>), along with two other scientists, Sheldon Glashow (1932<ref name="Iliopoulos2017">John Iliopoulos (2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W4c0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA73&dq=Sheldon+Lee+Glashow+(1932&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiW-96Dw8HjAhVEUhUIHb2VD7cQ6AEIPzAE#v=onepage&q=Sheldon%20Lee%20Glashow%20(1932&f=false The Origin of Mass: Elementary Particles and Fundamental Symmetries]''. Oxford University Press. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-19-880517-5.</ref>—Present) and Steven Weinberg (1933<ref name="Iliopoulos2017"/>—Present) in 1979. It is also notable that Salam was the first to invent the word ''"electroweak"'' itself in 1978.<ref name="Hasham Cheema (January 29th, 2018).">Hasham Cheema (January 29th, 2018). ''[https://www.dawn.com/news/1311473 Abdus Salam: The real story of Pakistan's Nobel prize winner]''. Dawn. ''[http://archive.is/LugdX Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved July 19th, 2019.</ref> The model is also known as the ''Weinberg-Salam'' Model,<ref name="Lubkin1979">Lubkin, Gloria B. (1979). ''"[https://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.2995309 Nobel Prizes: to Glashow, Salam and Weinberg for Physics]"''. Physics Today 32 (12): 17–19. ISSN 0031-9228. doi:10.1063/1.2995309.</ref> or the ''Weinberg-Salam-Glashow'' Model<ref name="Boyarkin2007">O. M. Boyarkin (2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WFDs_SJgILQC&pg=PA158&dq=Weinberg-Salam-Glashow&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi6iNOb2sPjAhVlUBUIHZrICf0Q6AEINDAC#v=onepage&q=Weinberg-Salam-Glashow&f=false Introduction to Physics of Elementary Particles]''. Nova Publishers. p. 158. ISBN 978-1-60021-200-0.</ref> or the ''Glashow-Weinberg-Salam'' Model.<ref name="Xianhao Xin (December 11th, 2007)."/> However—although it is named so—really only two of these scientists were truly important to it's discovery; mainly Salam and Weinberg who had actually worked ''independently'' of one other.<ref name="Xianhao Xin (December 11th, 2007).">Xianhao Xin (December 11th, 2007). ''[http://guava.physics.uiuc.edu/~nigel/courses/569/Essays_Fall2007/files/xianhao_xin.pdf Glashow-Weinberg-Salam Model: An Example of Electroweak Symmetry Breaking]''. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.  ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190719191730/http://guava.physics.uiuc.edu/~nigel/courses/569/Essays_Fall2007/files/xianhao_xin.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved July 19th, 2019.</ref> For their discovery, all three of them were equally awarded a split of the prize money (totalling $190,000 dollars; or ~$670,000 in 2019 dollars<ref name="inflation">''[http://www.in2013dollars.com/us/inflation/1979?amount=190000 $190,000 in 1979 → $670,346.69 in 2019]''. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190720150410/http://www.in2013dollars.com/us/inflation/1979?amount=190000 WayBackMachine Link]''. In 2013 dollars. Retrieved July 20th, 2019.</ref>).<ref name="Lubkin1979"/>
[[File:41586 2019 1129 Fig1 HTML.jpg|thumb|right|140px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">The detection and proof of gravitational waves was finally confirmed in February 2016, the first time ever.</div>]]
*'''Gravitational Waves'''—In 2010, Nergis Mavalvala (1968—Present) was one of the key<ref name="dalhousie">''[https://www.dal.ca/academics/convocation/history_traditions/honorary_degree_recipients/hon_degree_2017/nergis_mavalvala.html NERGIS MAVALVALA Spring 2017 Honorary Degree Recipient]''. Dalhousie University. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012023623/https://www.dal.ca/academics/convocation/history_traditions/honorary_degree_recipients/hon_degree_2017/nergis_mavalvala.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Maira Farhan (February 17th, 2016).">Maira Farhan (February 17th, 2016). ''[https://www.houseofpakistan.com/2016/02/nergis-mavalvala-gravitational-waves-pakistani/ NERGIS MAVALVALA – PAKISTANI MASTERMIND BEHIND THE DISCOVERY OF GRAVITATIONAL WAVES]''. House of Pakistan. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012021338/https://www.houseofpakistan.com/2016/02/nergis-mavalvala-gravitational-waves-pakistani/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref><ref name="PSF News (March 17th, 2016).">PSF News (March 17th, 2016). ''[http://www.psf.gov.pk/dr-nargis-lecture-psf-2016.aspx]''. Pakistan Science Foundation. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20181109182513/http://www.psf.gov.pk/dr-nargis-lecture-psf-2016.aspx WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">
Some of her key contributions have been;
:::'''Quote:''' Having the ''"crucial role"''' of ''"developing the quantum optics used in the upgrade from LIGO to Advanced LIGO"''.
#Hamish Johnston (12th January 2016). ''[https://physicsworld.com/a/has-advanced-ligo-found-gravitational-waves/ Has Advanced LIGO found gravitational waves?]''. Physics World. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012020947/https://physicsworld.com/a/has-advanced-ligo-found-gravitational-waves/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.
:::'''Quote:''' She ''"[d]esigned a key system for the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) project while earning her Ph.D.  in physics from Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1997"'' and ''"[w]as involved in building the LIGO detectors as a postdoctoral research and staff scientist at the California Institute of Technology from 1997 to 2002"''.
#Catherine Caruso (Summer 2018). ''[https://magazine.wellesley.edu/summer-2018/cosmic-breakthrough A COSMIC BREAKTHROUGH]''. Wellesley Magazine. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191011232715/https://magazine.wellesley.edu/summer-2018/cosmic-breakthrough WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.
:::'''Quote:''' ''"To my fellow researchers of the LIGO Squeezed Injection team-Nergis Mavalvala, Michael Landry, Robert Schofield, Matthew Evans, Cheryl Vorvick, Richard Gustafson, Grant Meadors, Maxim Factourovich, Alexander Khalaidovski and Nick Smith-Lefebvre. Thank you for your contributions essential to the success of the project. In particular, thank you to Nergis Mavalvala at MIT and Michael Landry at Hanford, whom without making available the resources and time allocation, would have made the squeezing experiment impossible to complete"''.
#Sheon S. Y. Chua (9 May 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YCxACQAAQBAJ&pg=PR12&dq=Nergis+Mavalvala&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjek4eMxpXlAhVKTxUIHX9zD_kQ6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=Nergis%20Mavalvala&f=false Quantum Enhancement of a 4 km Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Detector]''. Springer. p. 12. ISBN 978-3-319-17686-4.
</ref> people (in fact ''"a leading figure in the scientific team"''<ref name="Hayley Hanway (December 13th, 2018).">Hayley Hanway (December 13th, 2018). ''[https://news.engin.umich.edu/2018/12/a-world-shaking-discovery-100-years-in-the-making/ A world-shaking discovery 100 years in the making]''. The Michigan Engineer News Center. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012013008/https://news.engin.umich.edu/2018/12/a-world-shaking-discovery-100-years-in-the-making/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref>) to first '''detect''' and '''prove''' the existence of gravitational waves.<ref name="Sicardi2019">Arabelle Sicardi (17 September 2019). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZM6uDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39&dq=Nergis+Mavalvala&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjek4eMxpXlAhVKTxUIHX9zD_kQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=Nergis%20Mavalvala&f=false Queer Heroes: Meet 53 LGBTQ Heroes From Past and Present!]''. Wide Eyed Editions. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-78603-476-2.</ref> The team is known as the ''"Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory"'' (LIGO) Group.<ref name="Hayley Hanway (December 13th, 2018)."/> Since 1990, she directly helped design and build the LIGO tool to detect gravitational waves (subsequently winning the ''"MacArthur Fellowship"'' in 2010<ref name="Leda Zimmerman (July 7th, 2014)."/><ref name="maf200">''[https://www.macfound.org/fellows/35/ Nergis Mavalvala]''. MacArthur Foundation. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012015124/https://www.macfound.org/fellows/35/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref><ref name="adlerplanetarium">''[https://www.adlerplanetarium.org/nergis-mavalvala/ 2016 Fall Kavli Fulldome Lecture]''. October 2016. Adler Planetarium. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012014520/https://www.adlerplanetarium.org/nergis-mavalvala/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref>).<ref name="Leda Zimmerman (July 7th, 2014).">Leda Zimmerman (July 7th, 2014). ''[http://news.mit.edu/2014/era-astronomical-discovery Era of astronomical discovery]''. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012013837/http://news.mit.edu/2014/era-astronomical-discovery WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref> Over the course of three runs of the LIGO tool, a total of 24 gravitational waves have been discovered as of September 2019.<ref name="Jonathan O'Callaghan (September 12th, 2019).">Jonathan O'Callaghan (September 12th, 2019). ''[https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-gravitational-wave-revolution-is-underway/ The Gravitational-Wave “Revolution” Is Underway]''. Scientific American. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012014229/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-gravitational-wave-revolution-is-underway/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref> They were first detected in 2016.<ref name="Nine To Noon (31st January 2019).">Nine To Noon (31st January 2019). ''[https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/ninetonoon/audio/2018680518/opening-a-new-window-into-the-universe Opening a new window into the universe]''. Radio New Zealand. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012020323/https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/ninetonoon/audio/2018680518/opening-a-new-window-into-the-universe WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref><ref name="nergis">''[https://web.mit.edu/physics/people/faculty/mavalvala_nergis.html NERGIS MAVALVALA, Curtis and Kathleen Marble Professor of Astrophysics, Associate Department Head of Physics]''. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012015729/https://web.mit.edu/physics/people/faculty/mavalvala_nergis.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Will Dunham, Scott Malone (February 11th, 2016).">Will Dunham, Scott Malone (February 11th, 2016). ''[https://www.reuters.com/article/space-gravitywaves/einsteins-gravitational-waves-detected-in-landmark-discovery-idUSKCN0VK1RT Einstein's gravitational waves detected in landmark discovery]''. Reuters. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012015417/https://www.reuters.com/article/space-gravitywaves/einsteins-gravitational-waves-detected-in-landmark-discovery-idUSKCN0VK1RT WayBackMachine Link]''.  Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref><ref name="wingswomen">''[http://www.wingsworldquest.org/blog/2018/4/4/nzeafg2qvo9687lo51nk505n675f05 WOMEN OF DISCOVERY: Q&A WITH NERGIS MAVALVALA]''. April 9th, 2018. Wings Worldquest. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012020004/http://www.wingsworldquest.org/blog/2018/4/4/nzeafg2qvo9687lo51nk505n675f05 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref> LIGO began operations in 2002 after decades of funding problems, overall costing $1.1 billion dollars.<ref name="Joel Achenbach, Rachel Feltman (February 11th, 2016).">Joel Achenbach, Rachel Feltman (February 11th, 2016). ''[https://www.heraldonline.com/news/article59850561.html Physicists detect gravitational waves from violent black-hole merger]''. Herald Online. ''[https://web.archive.org/save/https://www.heraldonline.com/news/article59850561.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref>
**She is a Pakistani-American<ref name="Rani2017">Rani, Malika (2017). ''"[https://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/full/10.1139/cjp-2016-0579#.XaE7ilVKjIU Women physicists in Pakistan and my story of hard-earned success]"''. Canadian Journal of Physics. 95 (7): xv–xvii. doi:10.1139/cjp-2016-0579. ISSN 0008-4204.</ref><ref name="comstech">''[http://www.comstech.org/docs/Dr-Nergis.pdf Dr Nergis Mavalvala and Detection of First Ever Gravitational Waves by LIGO from Two Merging Black Holes]''. Committee on Scientific and Technological Cooperation (COMSTECH). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012023935/http://www.comstech.org/docs/Dr-Nergis.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref> who comes from the Parsi minority<ref name="Dawn (February 13th, 2016)."/> (descendents of the Sassanian Persians, who follow the Zoroastrian religion, who fled to South Asia in 900 A.D. when the Umayyad Arabs defeated the Sassanian Persians<ref name="MohyuddinMehdi2005">Mohyuddin, A.; Mehdi, S. Q. (2005). ''"[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1399-0039.2005.00507.x HLA analysis of the Parsi (Zoroastrian) population in Pakistan]"''. Tissue Antigens. 66 (6): 691–695. doi:10.1111/j.1399-0039.2005.00507.x. ISSN 0001-2815.</ref>), and is particularly notable as she's also a double minority. She is a lesbian,<ref name="mombian">''[https://www.mombian.com/2016/02/18/out-queer-person-of-color-and-mom-helped-discover-gravitational-waves/ Lesbian Mom of Color Helped Discover Gravitational Waves]''.  February 18th, 2016. Mombian. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190417131845/https://www.mombian.com/2016/02/18/out-queer-person-of-color-and-mom-helped-discover-gravitational-waves/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Vijaysree Venkatraman (June 1st, 2012).">Vijaysree Venkatraman (June 1st, 2012). ''[https://www.sciencemag.org/careers/2012/06/gravitational-wave-researcher-succeeds-being-herself Gravitational wave researcher succeeds by being herself]''. Science Magazine. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012002709/https://www.sciencemag.org/careers/2012/06/gravitational-wave-researcher-succeeds-being-herself WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref> and is currently married to an unknown female colleague, and who together have adopted two boys to raise.<ref name="Catherine Caruso (Summer 2018).">Catherine Caruso (Summer 2018). ''[https://magazine.wellesley.edu/summer-2018/cosmic-breakthrough A COSMIC BREAKTHROUGH]''. Wellesley Magazine. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191011232715/https://magazine.wellesley.edu/summer-2018/cosmic-breakthrough WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref> She currently resides in Arlington, Massachusetts, USA.<ref name="Catherine Caruso (Summer 2018)."/> She was born in Pakistan, raised on McNeil Road, Karachi; and in 1986<ref name="Summer Ash (October 5th, 2017).">Summer Ash (October 5th, 2017). ''[https://www.syfy.com/syfywire/star-stuff-the-nobel-prize-has-99-problems-and-gender-is-one STAR STUFF: THE NOBEL PRIZE HAS 99 PROBLEMS AND GENDER IS ONE]''. Syfy. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190318195116/https://www.syfy.com/syfywire/star-stuff-the-nobel-prize-has-99-problems-and-gender-is-one WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref> she and her family migrated to the US.<ref name="Yusra Salim (February 16th, 2016).">Yusra Salim (February 16th, 2016). ''[https://tribune.com.pk/story/1047678/karachi-bike-repairman-inspired-mavalvala/ Karachi bike repairman inspired Mavalvala]''. Tribune. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20181226093026/https://tribune.com.pk/story/1047678/karachi-bike-repairman-inspired-mavalvala/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref>
**Despite not having visited Pakistan for some 30 years, her mentions in the Pakistani blogosphere pleasantly surprised her.<ref name="Atika Rehman (February 15th, 2016)."/> As a result she has been ''"mindful of what she wants Pakistanis to know about her journey"'' given the importance of her identity, stating ''"[a]nybody should be able to succeed — whether you’re a woman, a religious minority or whether you’re gay...Anybody should be able to do those things. And I am proof of that because I am all of those things"''.<ref name="Atika Rehman (February 15th, 2016).">Atika Rehman (February 15th, 2016). ''[https://www.dawn.com/news/1239667 Nergis Mavalvala, Pakistan’s unexpected celebrity scientist]''. Dawn. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190817051632/https://www.dawn.com/news/1239667 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref> She credits part of her success to a ''"chemistry teacher in Pakistan who let her play with reagents in the lab after school"''.<ref name="Dawn (February 13th, 2016).">Dawn (February 13th, 2016). ''[https://www.dawn.com/news/1239270/nergis-mavalvala-the-karachiite-who-went-on-to-detect-einsteins-gravitational-waves Nergis Mavalvala: The Karachiite who went on to detect Einstein's gravitational waves]''. Dawn. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190405145414/https://www.dawn.com/news/1239270/nergis-mavalvala-the-karachiite-who-went-on-to-detect-einsteins-gravitational-waves WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref> That school was the ''"Convent of Jesus and Mary School"'', Karachi.<ref name="Dawn (February 13th, 2016)."/> In 2018 she was invited to and attended the ''"Pakistani-American Community Center"'' (PACC).<ref name="Riaz Haq (February 24th, 2018).">Riaz Haq (February 24th, 2018). ''[http://www.riazhaq.com/2018/02/pakistani-american-astrophysicist-dr.html Pakistani-American Astrophysicist Dr. Nergis Mavalvala in Silicon Valley]''. Haq's Musings. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012030220/http://www.riazhaq.com/2018/02/pakistani-american-astrophysicist-dr.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref>

[[File:Cassinikhawaja.jpg|thumb|left|200px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;font-size:80%;">Plumes from Enceladus (''left''<ref name="KhawajaPostberg2019"/>), Cassini-Huygens (''right''). Analysing data from the spacecraft is extremely difficult. Khawaja was the first to crack part of it and discovered that it had detected precursors to life on Enceladus.</div>]]
::::::::::*'''First (Non-Earth Origin) Amino-Acid Precursors'''—Nozair Khawaja (19??—Present; a Punjabi Pakistani, and a native of Wazirabad<ref name="Suhail Yusuf (October 2nd, 2019)."/>), who is a researcher at ''"Freie Universität Berlin"'', and astrobiologist led<ref name="Suhail Yusuf (October 2nd, 2019).">Suhail Yusuf (October 2nd, 2019). ''[https://tribune.com.pk/story/2070352/1-team-led-pakistani-scientist-discovers-signs-life-saturn-moon/ Team led by Pakistani scientist discovers signs of life on Saturn moon]''. Tribune. ''[http://archive.is/HWzj1 Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved October 21st, 2019.</ref><ref name="Chelsea Gohd (October 3rd, 2019).">Chelsea Gohd (October 3rd, 2019). ''[https://www.space.com/saturn-moon-enceladus-organic-compounds-in-plumes.html Organic Compounds Found in Plumes of Saturn's Icy Moon Enceladus]''. Space. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191022164348/https://www.space.com/saturn-moon-enceladus-organic-compounds-in-plumes.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 22nd, 2019.</ref><ref name="Robert Massey (October 3rd, 2019).">Robert Massey (October 3rd, 2019). ''[https://ras.ac.uk/news-and-press/research-highlights/new-organic-compounds-found-enceladus-ice-grains New Organic Compounds Found in Enceladus Ice Grains]''. Royal Astronomical Society. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191022164921/https://ras.ac.uk/news-and-press/research-highlights/new-organic-compounds-found-enceladus-ice-grains WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 22nd, 2019.</ref> a team that was the first to discover the presence of amino-acid precursors on Saturn's moon, Enceladus, in 2019 (read here<ref name="KhawajaPostberg2019">Khawaja, N; Postberg, F; Hillier, J; Klenner, F; Kempf, S; Nölle, L; Reviol, R; Zou, Z; Srama, R (2019). ''"[https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/489/4/5231/5573821 Low-mass nitrogen-, oxygen-bearing, and aromatic compounds in Enceladean ice grains]"''. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 489 (4): 5231–5243. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2280. ISSN 0035-8711.</ref>). These precursors are made of nitrogen and oxygen compounds—elements that are essential to the birth of life.<ref name="Morgan Mcfall-johnsen (3rd October 2019).">Morgan Mcfall-johnsen (3rd October 2019). ''[https://www.sciencealert.com/nasa-just-revealed-enceladus-really-does-contain-the-building-blocks-of-life NASA Just Revealed an Ocean on Enceladus Contains The Building Blocks of Life]''. Science Alert. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191004011909/https://www.sciencealert.com/nasa-just-revealed-enceladus-really-does-contain-the-building-blocks-of-life WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 21st, 2019.</ref><ref name="Gart Williams (10th October 2019).">Gart Williams (10th October 2019). ''[https://www.outerplaces.com/science/item/19430-enceladus-nitrogen-oxygen 'Building Blocks of Life' Found in Icy Geysers on Saturn's Moon Enceladus]''. Outer Places. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191021114637/https://www.outerplaces.com/science/item/19430-enceladus-nitrogen-oxygen WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 21st, 2019.</ref> The discovery is the ''"first of its kind beyond Earth, making Enceladus"'' a prospect of harbouring ''"extraterrestrial life"''.<ref name="dunyanewssaturn">''[https://dunyanews.tv/en/Technology/512189-Pakistani-scientist-discovers-organic-molecule-Saturn-moon-Enceladus Pakistani scientist discovers organic molecule on Saturn 'Enceladus' moon]''. 2nd October 2019. Dunya News. ''[http://archive.is/VcroG Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved October 21st, 2019.</ref>
::::::::::**Khawaja, for his discovery, was awarded the ''NASA Group Achievement Award'' (2019); which is an award given out for being successfully capable of decoding, analyzing and discovering new information from the vast amounts of data collected and transmitted by the ''Cassini-Huygens'' (1997—2017) spacecraft. The data was extracted from the mass spectrometer results beamed from the spacecraft's ''"Cosmic Dust Analyzer"''.<ref name="Jason Daley (October 4th, 2019).">Jason Daley (October 4th, 2019). ''[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/new-organic-compounds-found-plumes-saturns-ice-moon-enceladus-180973282/ New Organic Compounds Found in Plumes From Saturn’s Icy Moon Enceladus]''. Smithsonian Magazine. ''[http://archive.is/Qqldc WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 21st, 2019.</ref> It should be noted that the data is extremely difficult to analyze; and will take scientists decades to fully interpret it's complete data stores.<ref name="Gretchen McCartney, Alana Johnson.">Gretchen McCartney, Alana Johnson. ''(October 2nd, 2019)''. ''[https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7510 New Organic Compounds Found in Enceladus Ice Grains]''. Jet Propulsion Laboratory (NASA). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191115055801/https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7510 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved November 15th, 2019.</ref>
::::::::::***The ''Cassini-Huygens'' mission is a cooperative project between the European Space Agency (ESA), NASA and the Italian Space Agency.<ref name="Gretchen McCartney; Alana Johnson (October 2nd, 2019).">Gretchen McCartney; Alana Johnson (October 2nd, 2019). ''[https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7510 New Organic Compounds Found in Enceladus Ice Grains]''. NASA, Californian Institute of Technology, Jet Propulsion Laboratory. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191021113345/https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7510 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 21st, 2019.</ref>
::::::::::**The discovery is exciting as the hydrothermal vents in the earth involving these very same elemental precursor compounds is theorized to have lead to life on earth; the process for the birth of life on earth is complex, but is first thought to involve ''"[s]ea water [mixing] with magma, leading to hydro-thermal springs with temperatures reaching 370 degrees Celsius"'' and that ''"[u]nder these conditions, organic compounds are converted to amino acids, and the mineral components allow living organisms to develop and multiply without the help of sunlight"''.<ref name="sofianewsagency">''[https://www.novinite.com/articles/200727/Scientists+Discovered+New+Organic+Compounds+on+Enceladus+-+Saturn%27s+Moon Scientists Discovered New Organic Compounds on Enceladus - Saturn's Moon]''. October 7th, 2019. Novinite (Sofia News Agency). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191021114456/https://www.novinite.com/articles/200727/Scientists+Discovered+New+Organic+Compounds+on+Enceladus+-+Saturn%27s+Moon WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 21st, 2019.</ref>

[[File:Pati-salam model.jpg|thumb|right|300px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;font-size:70%;">The Salam-Pati Model, one of three of the ''"Grand Unified Theories"'' (GUT) which extends the Standard Model (SM). Indian scientist Jogesh Pati had been for years trying to get into contact with Salaam in order to collaborate with the Pakistani scientist. Salaam then gave him an opportunity to meet him, and after several years the two had come up with the model that bears their name.</div>]]
*'''Salam—Pati Model'''—Abdus Salam (1926—1996<ref name="Duff2008">M. J. Duff (2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=meBpDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA28&dq=Abdus+Salam+1926-1996&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi8_ILtwMHjAhWmgVwKHRyFCjUQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=Abdus%20Salam%201926-1996&f=false Salam + 50: Proceedings of the Conference]''. World Scientific. pp. 28–30. ISBN 978-1-84816-190-0.</ref><ref name="Iliopoulos2017"/>) was the first to formulate the Salam—Pati Model, along with another scientist, Jogesh Pati (1937—Present), in 1974.<ref name="John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011)patisalamsections.">John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011). ''[http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/guts.pdf The Algebra of Grand Unified Theories]''. p. 48-62. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190719182408/http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/guts.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved July 19th, 2019.</ref> It is one of the three ''"Grand Unified Theories"'' (GUT) to have been discovered so far (the others being ''"SU(5)"'' and ''"Spin(10)"'').<ref name="John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011)gutexplaination."/> These help extend the ''"Standard Model"'' (SM) application to lower and higher energies and are thus theorised to complete the model.<ref name="John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011)gutexplaination."/> Interestingly ''"Spin(10)"'' GUT reduces down to the Salam-Pati Model.<ref name="John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011)notperfect"/>
**In order to appreciate the significance of this discovery, it is important to understand that physics is described by a set of laws known as the ''"Standard Model"'' (SM).<ref name="John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011)gutexplaination.">John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011). ''[http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/guts.pdf The Algebra of Grand Unified Theories]''. p. 31-32. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190719182408/http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/guts.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved July 19th, 2019.</ref> However this model tends to break down when describing physics at either lower or higher energies.<ref name="John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011)gutexplaination."/> Thus the SM is an incomplete theory; therefore a ''"Grand Unified Theory"'' (GUT) is required to amalgamate everything into making logical sense.<ref name="John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011)gutexplaination."/> This thus lead to the development three GUT's, ''"SU(5)"'', ''"Spin(10)"'' and ''"Salam-Pati"''.
***However, despite the usefulness of GUT's, although they are not wrong, they are all not entirely wholly perfect (in that they do not fully explain all physical phenomenon).<ref name="John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011)notperfect">John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011). ''[http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/guts.pdf The Algebra of Grand Unified Theories]''. p. 2-3. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190719182408/http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/guts.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved July 19th, 2019.</ref> There is for example evidence that the ''"SU(5)"'' GUT is wrong, leaving just the other two. However, despite their logical sense, ''"no empirical [i.e. physical] evidence that any GUT is correct [exists]"''.<ref name="John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011)incorrect">John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011). ''[http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/guts.pdf The Algebra of Grand Unified Theories]''. p. 32. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190719182408/http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/guts.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved July 19th, 2019.</ref>
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'''[[#Astronomy & Universe (4)|Astronomy]]''' •
'''[[#Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)|Agriculture, Food & Beverage]]''' •
'''[[#Biology (2)|Biology]]''' (''[[#Paleontology (10)|Paleontology]]'') •
'''[[#Chemistry (5)|Chemistry]]''' •
'''[[#Computing (4)|Computing]]''' (''[[#Video-gaming (1)|Video-gaming]] • [[#Board Games (1)|Board-games]]'') •
'''[[#Mathematics (3)|Mathematics]]''' •
'''[[#Medicines (1)|Medicine]]''' (''[[#Disease Eradication (1)|Disease Eradication]]'' • ''[[#Genetics & Disease (5)|Genetics & Disease]]'' • ''[[#Medical Instruments (6)|Instruments]]'') •
'''[[#Physics (5)|Physics]]''' •
'''Engineering''' (''[[#Naval Engineering (1)|Naval]]'' • ''[[#Mechanical Engineering (7)|Mechanical]]'' • ''[[#Handtool Engineering (3)|Handtool]]'' • ''[[#Textile Engineering (3)|Textile]]'' (''[[#Clothing (2)|Clothing]]'') • ''[[#Architectural Engineering (4)|Architectural]]'') •
'''[[#Sport & Recreation (2)|Sport & Recreation]]''' •
'''[[#Disputed (2)|Disputed]]''' •
[[#Further Reading|Further Reading]] •
[[#Sources|Sources]] •
(''[[#Footnotes|Footnotes]]'' • ''[[#References|References]]'' • ''[[#Acknowledgements|Acknowledgements]]'') •
[[#External Links|External Links]] •
'''''Total Inventions & Discoveries Listed: 77'''''
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete.''
[[File:Nobel Prize.png|1000px|center|]]
*'''Electroweak Interaction'''—Abdus Salam (1926—1996<ref name="Duff2008">M. J. Duff (2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=meBpDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA28&dq=Abdus+Salam+1926-1996&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi8_ILtwMHjAhWmgVwKHRyFCjUQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=Abdus%20Salam%201926-1996&f=false Salam + 50: Proceedings of the Conference]''. World Scientific. pp. 28–30. ISBN 978-1-84816-190-0.</ref><ref name="Iliopoulos2017"/>) was the first to the discover the phenomenon of electroweak interaction (for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize<ref name="Coleman, Sidney (1979).">Coleman, Sidney (1979). ''"[http://www.jstor.org/stable/1749117 The 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics]"''. Science Vol. 206. Issue No. 4424 (1979): 1290-292.</ref>), along with two other scientists, Sheldon Glashow (1932<ref name="Iliopoulos2017">John Iliopoulos (2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W4c0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA73&dq=Sheldon+Lee+Glashow+(1932&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiW-96Dw8HjAhVEUhUIHb2VD7cQ6AEIPzAE#v=onepage&q=Sheldon%20Lee%20Glashow%20(1932&f=false The Origin of Mass: Elementary Particles and Fundamental Symmetries]''. Oxford University Press. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-19-880517-5.</ref>—Present) and Steven Weinberg (1933<ref name="Iliopoulos2017"/>—Present) in 1979. It is also notable that Salam was the first to invent the word ''"electroweak"'' itself in 1978.<ref name="Hasham Cheema (January 29th, 2018).">Hasham Cheema (January 29th, 2018). ''[https://www.dawn.com/news/1311473 Abdus Salam: The real story of Pakistan's Nobel prize winner]''. Dawn. ''[http://archive.is/LugdX Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved July 19th, 2019.</ref> The model is also known as the ''Weinberg-Salam'' Model,<ref name="Lubkin1979">Lubkin, Gloria B. (1979). ''"[https://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.2995309 Nobel Prizes: to Glashow, Salam and Weinberg for Physics]"''. Physics Today 32 (12): 17–19. ISSN 0031-9228. doi:10.1063/1.2995309.</ref> or the ''Weinberg-Salam-Glashow'' Model<ref name="Boyarkin2007">O. M. Boyarkin (2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WFDs_SJgILQC&pg=PA158&dq=Weinberg-Salam-Glashow&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi6iNOb2sPjAhVlUBUIHZrICf0Q6AEINDAC#v=onepage&q=Weinberg-Salam-Glashow&f=false Introduction to Physics of Elementary Particles]''. Nova Publishers. p. 158. ISBN 978-1-60021-200-0.</ref> or the ''Glashow-Weinberg-Salam'' Model.<ref name="Xianhao Xin (December 11th, 2007)."/> However—although it is named so—really only two of these scientists were truly important to it's discovery; mainly Salam and Weinberg who had actually worked ''independently'' of one other.<ref name="Xianhao Xin (December 11th, 2007).">Xianhao Xin (December 11th, 2007). ''[http://guava.physics.uiuc.edu/~nigel/courses/569/Essays_Fall2007/files/xianhao_xin.pdf Glashow-Weinberg-Salam Model: An Example of Electroweak Symmetry Breaking]''. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.  ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190719191730/http://guava.physics.uiuc.edu/~nigel/courses/569/Essays_Fall2007/files/xianhao_xin.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved July 19th, 2019.</ref> For their discovery, all three of them were equally awarded a split of the prize money (totalling $190,000 dollars; or ~$670,000 in 2019 dollars<ref name="inflation">''[http://www.in2013dollars.com/us/inflation/1979?amount=190000 $190,000 in 1979 → $670,346.69 in 2019]''. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190720150410/http://www.in2013dollars.com/us/inflation/1979?amount=190000 WayBackMachine Link]''. In 2013 dollars. Retrieved July 20th, 2019.</ref>).<ref name="Lubkin1979"/>
[[File:41586 2019 1129 Fig1 HTML.jpg|thumb|1000px|center|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">The detection and proof of gravitational waves was finally confirmed in February 2016, the first time ever.</div>]]
*'''Gravitational Waves'''—In 2010, Nergis Mavalvala (1968—Present) was one of the key<ref name="dalhousie">''[https://www.dal.ca/academics/convocation/history_traditions/honorary_degree_recipients/hon_degree_2017/nergis_mavalvala.html NERGIS MAVALVALA Spring 2017 Honorary Degree Recipient]''. Dalhousie University. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012023623/https://www.dal.ca/academics/convocation/history_traditions/honorary_degree_recipients/hon_degree_2017/nergis_mavalvala.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Maira Farhan (February 17th, 2016).">Maira Farhan (February 17th, 2016). ''[https://www.houseofpakistan.com/2016/02/nergis-mavalvala-gravitational-waves-pakistani/ NERGIS MAVALVALA – PAKISTANI MASTERMIND BEHIND THE DISCOVERY OF GRAVITATIONAL WAVES]''. House of Pakistan. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012021338/https://www.houseofpakistan.com/2016/02/nergis-mavalvala-gravitational-waves-pakistani/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref><ref name="PSF News (March 17th, 2016).">PSF News (March 17th, 2016). ''[http://www.psf.gov.pk/dr-nargis-lecture-psf-2016.aspx]''. Pakistan Science Foundation. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20181109182513/http://www.psf.gov.pk/dr-nargis-lecture-psf-2016.aspx WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">
Some of her key contributions have been;
:::'''Quote:''' Having the ''"crucial role"''' of ''"developing the quantum optics used in the upgrade from LIGO to Advanced LIGO"''.
#Hamish Johnston (12th January 2016). ''[https://physicsworld.com/a/has-advanced-ligo-found-gravitational-waves/ Has Advanced LIGO found gravitational waves?]''. Physics World. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012020947/https://physicsworld.com/a/has-advanced-ligo-found-gravitational-waves/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.
:::'''Quote:''' She ''"[d]esigned a key system for the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) project while earning her Ph.D.  in physics from Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1997"'' and ''"[w]as involved in building the LIGO detectors as a postdoctoral research and staff scientist at the California Institute of Technology from 1997 to 2002"''.
#Catherine Caruso (Summer 2018). ''[https://magazine.wellesley.edu/summer-2018/cosmic-breakthrough A COSMIC BREAKTHROUGH]''. Wellesley Magazine. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191011232715/https://magazine.wellesley.edu/summer-2018/cosmic-breakthrough WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.
:::'''Quote:''' ''"To my fellow researchers of the LIGO Squeezed Injection team-Nergis Mavalvala, Michael Landry, Robert Schofield, Matthew Evans, Cheryl Vorvick, Richard Gustafson, Grant Meadors, Maxim Factourovich, Alexander Khalaidovski and Nick Smith-Lefebvre. Thank you for your contributions essential to the success of the project. In particular, thank you to Nergis Mavalvala at MIT and Michael Landry at Hanford, whom without making available the resources and time allocation, would have made the squeezing experiment impossible to complete"''.
#Sheon S. Y. Chua (9 May 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YCxACQAAQBAJ&pg=PR12&dq=Nergis+Mavalvala&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjek4eMxpXlAhVKTxUIHX9zD_kQ6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=Nergis%20Mavalvala&f=false Quantum Enhancement of a 4 km Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Detector]''. Springer. p. 12. ISBN 978-3-319-17686-4.
</ref> people (in fact ''"a leading figure in the scientific team"''<ref name="Hayley Hanway (December 13th, 2018).">Hayley Hanway (December 13th, 2018). ''[https://news.engin.umich.edu/2018/12/a-world-shaking-discovery-100-years-in-the-making/ A world-shaking discovery 100 years in the making]''. The Michigan Engineer News Center. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012013008/https://news.engin.umich.edu/2018/12/a-world-shaking-discovery-100-years-in-the-making/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref>) to first '''detect''' and '''prove''' the existence of gravitational waves.<ref name="Sicardi2019">Arabelle Sicardi (17 September 2019). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZM6uDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39&dq=Nergis+Mavalvala&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjek4eMxpXlAhVKTxUIHX9zD_kQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=Nergis%20Mavalvala&f=false Queer Heroes: Meet 53 LGBTQ Heroes From Past and Present!]''. Wide Eyed Editions. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-78603-476-2.</ref> The team is known as the ''"Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory"'' (LIGO) Group.<ref name="Hayley Hanway (December 13th, 2018)."/> Since 1990, she directly helped design and build the LIGO tool to detect gravitational waves (subsequently winning the ''"MacArthur Fellowship"'' in 2010<ref name="Leda Zimmerman (July 7th, 2014)."/><ref name="maf200">''[https://www.macfound.org/fellows/35/ Nergis Mavalvala]''. MacArthur Foundation. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012015124/https://www.macfound.org/fellows/35/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref><ref name="adlerplanetarium">''[https://www.adlerplanetarium.org/nergis-mavalvala/ 2016 Fall Kavli Fulldome Lecture]''. October 2016. Adler Planetarium. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012014520/https://www.adlerplanetarium.org/nergis-mavalvala/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref>).<ref name="Leda Zimmerman (July 7th, 2014).">Leda Zimmerman (July 7th, 2014). ''[http://news.mit.edu/2014/era-astronomical-discovery Era of astronomical discovery]''. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012013837/http://news.mit.edu/2014/era-astronomical-discovery WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref> Over the course of three runs of the LIGO tool, a total of 24 gravitational waves have been discovered as of September 2019.<ref name="Jonathan O'Callaghan (September 12th, 2019).">Jonathan O'Callaghan (September 12th, 2019). ''[https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-gravitational-wave-revolution-is-underway/ The Gravitational-Wave “Revolution” Is Underway]''. Scientific American. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012014229/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-gravitational-wave-revolution-is-underway/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref> They were first detected in 2016.<ref name="Nine To Noon (31st January 2019).">Nine To Noon (31st January 2019). ''[https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/ninetonoon/audio/2018680518/opening-a-new-window-into-the-universe Opening a new window into the universe]''. Radio New Zealand. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012020323/https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/ninetonoon/audio/2018680518/opening-a-new-window-into-the-universe WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref><ref name="nergis">''[https://web.mit.edu/physics/people/faculty/mavalvala_nergis.html NERGIS MAVALVALA, Curtis and Kathleen Marble Professor of Astrophysics, Associate Department Head of Physics]''. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012015729/https://web.mit.edu/physics/people/faculty/mavalvala_nergis.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Will Dunham, Scott Malone (February 11th, 2016).">Will Dunham, Scott Malone (February 11th, 2016). ''[https://www.reuters.com/article/space-gravitywaves/einsteins-gravitational-waves-detected-in-landmark-discovery-idUSKCN0VK1RT Einstein's gravitational waves detected in landmark discovery]''. Reuters. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012015417/https://www.reuters.com/article/space-gravitywaves/einsteins-gravitational-waves-detected-in-landmark-discovery-idUSKCN0VK1RT WayBackMachine Link]''.  Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref><ref name="wingswomen">''[http://www.wingsworldquest.org/blog/2018/4/4/nzeafg2qvo9687lo51nk505n675f05 WOMEN OF DISCOVERY: Q&A WITH NERGIS MAVALVALA]''. April 9th, 2018. Wings Worldquest. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012020004/http://www.wingsworldquest.org/blog/2018/4/4/nzeafg2qvo9687lo51nk505n675f05 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref> LIGO began operations in 2002 after decades of funding problems, overall costing $1.1 billion dollars.<ref name="Joel Achenbach, Rachel Feltman (February 11th, 2016).">Joel Achenbach, Rachel Feltman (February 11th, 2016). ''[https://www.heraldonline.com/news/article59850561.html Physicists detect gravitational waves from violent black-hole merger]''. Herald Online. ''[https://web.archive.org/save/https://www.heraldonline.com/news/article59850561.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref>
**She is a Pakistani-American<ref name="Rani2017">Rani, Malika (2017). ''"[https://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/full/10.1139/cjp-2016-0579#.XaE7ilVKjIU Women physicists in Pakistan and my story of hard-earned success]"''. Canadian Journal of Physics. 95 (7): xv–xvii. doi:10.1139/cjp-2016-0579. ISSN 0008-4204.</ref><ref name="comstech">''[http://www.comstech.org/docs/Dr-Nergis.pdf Dr Nergis Mavalvala and Detection of First Ever Gravitational Waves by LIGO from Two Merging Black Holes]''. Committee on Scientific and Technological Cooperation (COMSTECH). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012023935/http://www.comstech.org/docs/Dr-Nergis.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref> who comes from the Parsi minority<ref name="Dawn (February 13th, 2016)."/> (descendents of the Sassanian Persians, who follow the Zoroastrian religion, who fled to South Asia in 900 A.D. when the Umayyad Arabs defeated the Sassanian Persians<ref name="MohyuddinMehdi2005">Mohyuddin, A.; Mehdi, S. Q. (2005). ''"[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1399-0039.2005.00507.x HLA analysis of the Parsi (Zoroastrian) population in Pakistan]"''. Tissue Antigens. 66 (6): 691–695. doi:10.1111/j.1399-0039.2005.00507.x. ISSN 0001-2815.</ref>), and is particularly notable as she's also a double minority. She is a lesbian,<ref name="mombian">''[https://www.mombian.com/2016/02/18/out-queer-person-of-color-and-mom-helped-discover-gravitational-waves/ Lesbian Mom of Color Helped Discover Gravitational Waves]''.  February 18th, 2016. Mombian. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190417131845/https://www.mombian.com/2016/02/18/out-queer-person-of-color-and-mom-helped-discover-gravitational-waves/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Vijaysree Venkatraman (June 1st, 2012).">Vijaysree Venkatraman (June 1st, 2012). ''[https://www.sciencemag.org/careers/2012/06/gravitational-wave-researcher-succeeds-being-herself Gravitational wave researcher succeeds by being herself]''. Science Magazine. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012002709/https://www.sciencemag.org/careers/2012/06/gravitational-wave-researcher-succeeds-being-herself WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref> and is currently married to an unknown female colleague, and who together have adopted two boys to raise.<ref name="Catherine Caruso (Summer 2018).">Catherine Caruso (Summer 2018). ''[https://magazine.wellesley.edu/summer-2018/cosmic-breakthrough A COSMIC BREAKTHROUGH]''. Wellesley Magazine. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191011232715/https://magazine.wellesley.edu/summer-2018/cosmic-breakthrough WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref> She currently resides in Arlington, Massachusetts, USA.<ref name="Catherine Caruso (Summer 2018)."/> She was born in Pakistan, raised on McNeil Road, Karachi; and in 1986<ref name="Summer Ash (October 5th, 2017).">Summer Ash (October 5th, 2017). ''[https://www.syfy.com/syfywire/star-stuff-the-nobel-prize-has-99-problems-and-gender-is-one STAR STUFF: THE NOBEL PRIZE HAS 99 PROBLEMS AND GENDER IS ONE]''. Syfy. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190318195116/https://www.syfy.com/syfywire/star-stuff-the-nobel-prize-has-99-problems-and-gender-is-one WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref> she and her family migrated to the US.<ref name="Yusra Salim (February 16th, 2016).">Yusra Salim (February 16th, 2016). ''[https://tribune.com.pk/story/1047678/karachi-bike-repairman-inspired-mavalvala/ Karachi bike repairman inspired Mavalvala]''. Tribune. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20181226093026/https://tribune.com.pk/story/1047678/karachi-bike-repairman-inspired-mavalvala/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref>
**Despite not having visited Pakistan for some 30 years, her mentions in the Pakistani blogosphere pleasantly surprised her.<ref name="Atika Rehman (February 15th, 2016)."/> As a result she has been ''"mindful of what she wants Pakistanis to know about her journey"'' given the importance of her identity, stating ''"[a]nybody should be able to succeed — whether you’re a woman, a religious minority or whether you’re gay...Anybody should be able to do those things. And I am proof of that because I am all of those things"''.<ref name="Atika Rehman (February 15th, 2016).">Atika Rehman (February 15th, 2016). ''[https://www.dawn.com/news/1239667 Nergis Mavalvala, Pakistan’s unexpected celebrity scientist]''. Dawn. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190817051632/https://www.dawn.com/news/1239667 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref> She credits part of her success to a ''"chemistry teacher in Pakistan who let her play with reagents in the lab after school"''.<ref name="Dawn (February 13th, 2016).">Dawn (February 13th, 2016). ''[https://www.dawn.com/news/1239270/nergis-mavalvala-the-karachiite-who-went-on-to-detect-einsteins-gravitational-waves Nergis Mavalvala: The Karachiite who went on to detect Einstein's gravitational waves]''. Dawn. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190405145414/https://www.dawn.com/news/1239270/nergis-mavalvala-the-karachiite-who-went-on-to-detect-einsteins-gravitational-waves WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref> That school was the ''"Convent of Jesus and Mary School"'', Karachi.<ref name="Dawn (February 13th, 2016)."/> In 2018 she was invited to and attended the ''"Pakistani-American Community Center"'' (PACC).<ref name="Riaz Haq (February 24th, 2018).">Riaz Haq (February 24th, 2018). ''[http://www.riazhaq.com/2018/02/pakistani-american-astrophysicist-dr.html Pakistani-American Astrophysicist Dr. Nergis Mavalvala in Silicon Valley]''. Haq's Musings. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012030220/http://www.riazhaq.com/2018/02/pakistani-american-astrophysicist-dr.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref>

[[File:Cassinikhawaja.jpg|thumb|1000px|center|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;font-size:80%;">Plumes from Enceladus (''left''<ref name="KhawajaPostberg2019"/>), Cassini-Huygens (''right''). Analysing data from the spacecraft is extremely difficult. Khawaja was the first to crack part of it and discovered that it had detected precursors to life on Enceladus.</div>]]
*'''First (Non-Earth Origin) Amino-Acid Precursors'''—Nozair Khawaja (19??—Present; a Punjabi Pakistani, and a native of Wazirabad<ref name="Suhail Yusuf (October 2nd, 2019)."/>), who is a researcher at ''"Freie Universität Berlin"'', and astrobiologist led<ref name="Suhail Yusuf (October 2nd, 2019).">Suhail Yusuf (October 2nd, 2019). ''[https://tribune.com.pk/story/2070352/1-team-led-pakistani-scientist-discovers-signs-life-saturn-moon/ Team led by Pakistani scientist discovers signs of life on Saturn moon]''. Tribune. ''[http://archive.is/HWzj1 Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved October 21st, 2019.</ref><ref name="Chelsea Gohd (October 3rd, 2019).">Chelsea Gohd (October 3rd, 2019). ''[https://www.space.com/saturn-moon-enceladus-organic-compounds-in-plumes.html Organic Compounds Found in Plumes of Saturn's Icy Moon Enceladus]''. Space. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191022164348/https://www.space.com/saturn-moon-enceladus-organic-compounds-in-plumes.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 22nd, 2019.</ref><ref name="Robert Massey (October 3rd, 2019).">Robert Massey (October 3rd, 2019). ''[https://ras.ac.uk/news-and-press/research-highlights/new-organic-compounds-found-enceladus-ice-grains New Organic Compounds Found in Enceladus Ice Grains]''. Royal Astronomical Society. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191022164921/https://ras.ac.uk/news-and-press/research-highlights/new-organic-compounds-found-enceladus-ice-grains WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 22nd, 2019.</ref> a team that was the first to discover the presence of amino-acid precursors on Saturn's moon, Enceladus, in 2019 (read here<ref name="KhawajaPostberg2019">Khawaja, N; Postberg, F; Hillier, J; Klenner, F; Kempf, S; Nölle, L; Reviol, R; Zou, Z; Srama, R (2019). ''"[https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/489/4/5231/5573821 Low-mass nitrogen-, oxygen-bearing, and aromatic compounds in Enceladean ice grains]"''. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 489 (4): 5231–5243. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2280. ISSN 0035-8711.</ref>). These precursors are made of nitrogen and oxygen compounds—elements that are essential to the birth of life.<ref name="Morgan Mcfall-johnsen (3rd October 2019).">Morgan Mcfall-johnsen (3rd October 2019). ''[https://www.sciencealert.com/nasa-just-revealed-enceladus-really-does-contain-the-building-blocks-of-life NASA Just Revealed an Ocean on Enceladus Contains The Building Blocks of Life]''. Science Alert. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191004011909/https://www.sciencealert.com/nasa-just-revealed-enceladus-really-does-contain-the-building-blocks-of-life WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 21st, 2019.</ref><ref name="Gart Williams (10th October 2019).">Gart Williams (10th October 2019). ''[https://www.outerplaces.com/science/item/19430-enceladus-nitrogen-oxygen 'Building Blocks of Life' Found in Icy Geysers on Saturn's Moon Enceladus]''. Outer Places. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191021114637/https://www.outerplaces.com/science/item/19430-enceladus-nitrogen-oxygen WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 21st, 2019.</ref> The discovery is the ''"first of its kind beyond Earth, making Enceladus"'' a prospect of harbouring ''"extraterrestrial life"''.<ref name="dunyanewssaturn">''[https://dunyanews.tv/en/Technology/512189-Pakistani-scientist-discovers-organic-molecule-Saturn-moon-Enceladus Pakistani scientist discovers organic molecule on Saturn 'Enceladus' moon]''. 2nd October 2019. Dunya News. ''[http://archive.is/VcroG Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved October 21st, 2019.</ref>
**Khawaja, for his discovery, was awarded the ''NASA Group Achievement Award'' (2019); which is an award given out for being successfully capable of decoding, analyzing and discovering new information from the vast amounts of data collected and transmitted by the ''Cassini-Huygens'' (1997—2017) spacecraft. The data was extracted from the mass spectrometer results beamed from the spacecraft's ''"Cosmic Dust Analyzer"''.<ref name="Jason Daley (October 4th, 2019).">Jason Daley (October 4th, 2019). ''[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/new-organic-compounds-found-plumes-saturns-ice-moon-enceladus-180973282/ New Organic Compounds Found in Plumes From Saturn’s Icy Moon Enceladus]''. Smithsonian Magazine. ''[http://archive.is/Qqldc WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 21st, 2019.</ref> It should be noted that the data is extremely difficult to analyze; and will take scientists decades to fully interpret it's complete data stores.<ref name="Gretchen McCartney, Alana Johnson.">Gretchen McCartney, Alana Johnson. ''(October 2nd, 2019)''. ''[https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7510 New Organic Compounds Found in Enceladus Ice Grains]''. Jet Propulsion Laboratory (NASA). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191115055801/https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7510 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved November 15th, 2019.</ref>
***The ''Cassini-Huygens'' mission is a cooperative project between the European Space Agency (ESA), NASA and the Italian Space Agency.<ref name="Gretchen McCartney; Alana Johnson (October 2nd, 2019).">Gretchen McCartney; Alana Johnson (October 2nd, 2019). ''[https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7510 New Organic Compounds Found in Enceladus Ice Grains]''. NASA, Californian Institute of Technology, Jet Propulsion Laboratory. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191021113345/https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7510 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 21st, 2019.</ref>
**The discovery is exciting as the hydrothermal vents in the earth involving these very same elemental precursor compounds is theorized to have lead to life on earth; the process for the birth of life on earth is complex, but is first thought to involve ''"[s]ea water [mixing] with magma, leading to hydro-thermal springs with temperatures reaching 370 degrees Celsius"'' and that ''"[u]nder these conditions, organic compounds are converted to amino acids, and the mineral components allow living organisms to develop and multiply without the help of sunlight"''.<ref name="sofianewsagency">''[https://www.novinite.com/articles/200727/Scientists+Discovered+New+Organic+Compounds+on+Enceladus+-+Saturn%27s+Moon Scientists Discovered New Organic Compounds on Enceladus - Saturn's Moon]''. October 7th, 2019. Novinite (Sofia News Agency). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191021114456/https://www.novinite.com/articles/200727/Scientists+Discovered+New+Organic+Compounds+on+Enceladus+-+Saturn%27s+Moon WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 21st, 2019.</ref>

[[File:Pati-salam model.jpg|thumb|1000px|center|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;font-size:70%;">The Salam-Pati Model, one of three of the ''"Grand Unified Theories"'' (GUT) which extends the Standard Model (SM). Indian scientist Jogesh Pati had been for years trying to get into contact with Salaam in order to collaborate with the Pakistani scientist. Salaam then gave him an opportunity to meet him, and after several years the two had come up with the model that bears their name.</div>]]
*'''Salam—Pati Model'''—Abdus Salam (1926—1996<ref name="Duff2008">M. J. Duff (2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=meBpDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA28&dq=Abdus+Salam+1926-1996&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi8_ILtwMHjAhWmgVwKHRyFCjUQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=Abdus%20Salam%201926-1996&f=false Salam + 50: Proceedings of the Conference]''. World Scientific. pp. 28–30. ISBN 978-1-84816-190-0.</ref><ref name="Iliopoulos2017"/>) was the first to formulate the Salam—Pati Model, along with another scientist, Jogesh Pati (1937—Present), in 1974.<ref name="John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011)patisalamsections.">John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011). ''[http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/guts.pdf The Algebra of Grand Unified Theories]''. p. 48-62. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190719182408/http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/guts.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved July 19th, 2019.</ref> It is one of the three ''"Grand Unified Theories"'' (GUT) to have been discovered so far (the others being ''"SU(5)"'' and ''"Spin(10)"'').<ref name="John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011)gutexplaination."/> These help extend the ''"Standard Model"'' (SM) application to lower and higher energies and are thus theorised to complete the model.<ref name="John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011)gutexplaination."/> Interestingly ''"Spin(10)"'' GUT reduces down to the Salam-Pati Model.<ref name="John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011)notperfect"/>
**In order to appreciate the significance of this discovery, it is important to understand that physics is described by a set of laws known as the ''"Standard Model"'' (SM).<ref name="John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011)gutexplaination.">John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011). ''[http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/guts.pdf The Algebra of Grand Unified Theories]''. p. 31-32. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190719182408/http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/guts.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved July 19th, 2019.</ref> However this model tends to break down when describing physics at either lower or higher energies.<ref name="John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011)gutexplaination."/> Thus the SM is an incomplete theory; therefore a ''"Grand Unified Theory"'' (GUT) is required to amalgamate everything into making logical sense.<ref name="John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011)gutexplaination."/> This thus lead to the development three GUT's, ''"SU(5)"'', ''"Spin(10)"'' and ''"Salam-Pati"''.
***However, despite the usefulness of GUT's, although they are not wrong, they are all not entirely wholly perfect (in that they do not fully explain all physical phenomenon).<ref name="John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011)notperfect">John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011). ''[http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/guts.pdf The Algebra of Grand Unified Theories]''. p. 2-3. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190719182408/http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/guts.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved July 19th, 2019.</ref> There is for example evidence that the ''"SU(5)"'' GUT is wrong, leaving just the other two. However, despite their logical sense, ''"no empirical [i.e. physical] evidence that any GUT is correct [exists]"''.<ref name="John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011)incorrect">John Baez, John Huerta (April 28th, 2011). ''[http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/guts.pdf The Algebra of Grand Unified Theories]''. p. 32. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190719182408/http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/guts.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved July 19th, 2019.</ref>
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===Biology (2)===
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[List of Inventions and Discoveries in Medicine During the Islamic Golden Age|List of Inventions and Discoveries in Medicine During the Islamic Golden Age]]'''''
[[File:Polyurethanes 14.jpg|thumb|right|200px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Polyurethane.</div>]]
*'''''Aspergillus tubingensis'', Polyester Polyurethane Degradation'''—In 2017, in a collaboration between Pakistan and China,<ref name="Harry Cockburn (22nd September 2017)."/><ref name="Nikola Mečiarová (September 19th, 2017).">Nikola Mečiarová (September 19th, 2017). ''[https://ecobnb.com/blog/2017/09/plastic-eating-fungus-pakistan/ Plastic-eating fungus: Newly discovered species of “ecological” fungus in Pakistan]''. Ecobnb. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016024806/https://ecobnb.com/blog/2017/09/plastic-eating-fungus-pakistan/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Brad Jones (15th September 2017).">Brad Jones (15th September 2017). ''[https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/09/chinese-scientists-have-found-a-plastic-eating-fungus?utm_content=buffer46102&utm_medium=social&utm_source=facebook.com&utm_campaign=buffer Chinese scientists have found a fungus that could help save the planet - in a rubbish dump in Pakistan]''. World Economic Forum. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016032256/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/09/chinese-scientists-have-found-a-plastic-eating-fungus?utm_content=buffer46102&utm_medium=social&utm_source=facebook.com&utm_campaign=buffer WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref> Pakistani and Chinese scientists became the first to discover that a fungus called ''Aspergillus tubingensis''—found in landfill sites in Pakistan—was capable of consuming a special type of plastic known as ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyurethane polyester polyurethane]'' (a material made up of repeating ethylurea—C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub>N<sub>2</sub>O—units<ref name="pubchem">''[https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/12254#section=CAS Ethylurea]''. PubChem. ''[Not an Archievable Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref>).<ref name="Harry Cockburn (22nd September 2017).">Harry Cockburn (22nd September 2017). ''[https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/plastic-degrading-fungus-pakistan-rubbish-dump-islamabad-dr-sehroon-khan-a7962046.html Plastic-degrading fungus found in Pakistan rubbish dump]''. The Independent. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016024704/https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/plastic-degrading-fungus-pakistan-rubbish-dump-islamabad-dr-sehroon-khan-a7962046.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Nikola Mečiarová (September 19th, 2017)."/> It does this by ''"secret[ing] enzymes which break down the bonds between individual molecules and then use its mycelia to break them apart"''.<ref name="Brad Jones (15th September 2017)."/>
**The study was lead by Sehroon Khan (19??—Present) of the ''World Agroforestry Centre'' at the ''Kunming Institute of Biology'' at the ''Chinese Academy of Sciences'' in China.<ref name="Harry Cockburn (22nd September 2017)."/><ref name="Nikola Mečiarová (September 19th, 2017)."/><ref name="Brad Jones (15th September 2017)."/> It is not the first time that scientists have known that microbial organisms can break down plastics, but what is unique about this study in particular is that it is the first time where ''Aspergillus tubingensis'' has been found to break down plastic.<ref name="Nikola Mečiarová (September 19th, 2017)."/> 
**''Aspergillus tubingensis'' is a common fungus that lives in soil.<ref name="Nikola Mečiarová (September 19th, 2017)."/> However, the study's findings are not as simple as have been reported, as there are a complex range of factors which influence how it behaves; most notably temperature, pH balance of its surrounding and the type of culture medium it is exposed to.<ref name="Nikola Mečiarová (September 19th, 2017)."/> Given the right conditions, it is capable of completely breaking down plastic into organic matter within weeks.<ref name="Nikola Mečiarová (September 19th, 2017)."/>

[[File:Nrmicro3326-f1.jpg|thumb|left|130px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Azam's microbial loop. Considered a breakthrough in marine science. It is essentially a food cycle. Two scientists were important to its development and discovery; Farooq Azam and Lawrence Pomeroy.</div>]]
:::::::*'''Microbial ''Loop''/Microbial ''Food Web'''''—In 1983,<ref name="F. Azam; T. Fenchel; J. G. Field; J. S. Graf; L. A. Meyer-Rei1; F. Thingstad (January 20th, 1983).">F. Azam; T. Fenchel; J. G. Field; J. S. Graf; L. A. Meyer-Rei1; F. Thingstad (January 20th, 1983). ''[https://www.int-res.com/articles/meps/10/m010p257.pdf The Ecological Role of Water-Column Microbes in the Sea]''. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 10: 257-263. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015051307/https://www.int-res.com/articles/meps/10/m010p257.pdf WayBackMachine]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref> Farooq Azam (19??—Present) was the first to develop a new marine microbiological theory known as the ''microbial loop''.<ref name="Munn2003"/> The theory was so profound that it is still referred to as a ''"major breakthrough"''.<ref name="Munn2003"/> Since then, science historians and marine biologists deservedly give Azam credit for the theory (alternatively known as the ''"microbial food web"''). His discovery lead to the theory's firm ''"establishment, formulation and refinement"'' across literature.<ref name="HessenTranvik1998">Dag O. Hessen; Lars J. Tranvik (16 July 1998). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bmkaYfrkQ4UC&pg=PA242&dq=Microbial+loop+Azam&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjyvaGFw53lAhUOaFAKHYzvCGMQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=Microbial%20loop%20Azam&f=false Aquatic Humic Substances: Ecology and Biogeochemistry]''. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 242. ISBN 978-3-540-63910-7.</ref> In effect, the microbial loop describes what happens to carbon when carbon-based life forms die; simply put DOM(/POM<ref name="Munn2003"/>; or dissolved organic matter/particulate organic matter<ref name="Munn2003"/> is consumed by) → bacteria → grazers → (then reaching the) higher trophic levels.<ref name="GasolKirchman2018">Josep M. Gasol; David L. Kirchman (27 March 2018). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKJFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8&dq=Microbial+loop+Azam&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiHgcCEwp3lAhUEZ1AKHXw-CTcQ6AEINTAC#v=onepage&q=Microbial%20loop%20Azam&f=false Microbial Ecology of the Oceans]''. John Wiley & Sons. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-119-10718-7.</ref><ref name="Miller2009">Charles B. Miller (1 April 2009). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ltxNZJP5Ej4C&pg=PA92&dq=Microbial+loop+Azam&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiHgcCEwp3lAhUEZ1AKHXw-CTcQ6AEIVjAH#v=onepage&q=Microbial%20loop%20Azam&f=false Biological Oceanography]''. John Wiley & Sons. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-4443-1112-9.</ref>
:::::::**However, some also credit another important researcher alongside him, Lawrence Pomeroy (19??—Present), in the introductory sections of the microbial loop theory in marine microbiology textbooks.<ref group="n.">
Some books also credit other authors in passing mentions as contributing to the theory in the introductory chapters of marine microbiology textbooks when discussing the microbial loop (or microbial food web), but it is unclear precisely what their contributions were since their mentions are so generically and hastility put together without actually any reference to precisely what makes them notable or unique. These other scientists include John Stout (1963), Amyan Macfadyan (1963), Williams (1981), Sieburth & Davies (1982).
#David C. Coleman (2010). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=odIcN_JKKfUC&pg=PA63&dq=Microbial+loop+Azam&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwja8YG-wZ3lAhUPPFAKHeUYCEk4ChDoAQhWMAg#v=onepage&q=Microbial%20loop%20Azam&f=false Big Ecology: The Emergence of Ecosystem Science]''. University of California Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-520-26475-5.
#K. Salonen; T. Kairesalo; R.I. Jones (6 December 2012). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l6jsCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA107&dq=Microbial+loop+Azam&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj46-vvwJ3lAhXFa1AKHXppC3gQ6AEIRDAE#v=onepage&q=Microbial%20loop%20Azam&f=false Dissolved Organic Matter in Lacustrine Ecosystems: Energy Source and System Regulator]''. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 107. ISBN 978-94-011-2474-4.
Most scholars and historians however do not credit them at all, but solely give credit to Azam and Pomeroy.
#Johanna Laybourn-Parry; Jemma Wadham (14 August 2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_RXVBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT48&dq=Microbial+loop+Azam&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiX9I-8wp3lAhVIUlAKHWLJDnk4ChDoAQhdMAg#v=onepage&q=Microbial%20loop%20Azam&f=false Antarctic Lakes]''. OUP Oxford. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-19-164932-5.
#Colin Munn (16 October 2003). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1_S4cJYT3DUC&pg=PA148&dq=Microbial+loop+Azam&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiX9I-8wp3lAhVIUlAKHWLJDnk4ChDoAQguMAE#v=onepage&q=Microbial%20loop%20Azam&f=false Marine Microbiology: Ecology & Applications]''. Garland Science. pp. 147–148. ISBN 978-0-203-50311-9.
</ref> However, there are clear differences in their work, and this has been made apparent by fellow marine microbiologist Colin Munn (19??—Present), who details their individual contributions in ''"Marine Microbiology: Ecology & Applications"'' (2003):<ref name="Munn2003">Colin Munn (16 October 2003). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1_S4cJYT3DUC&pg=PA148&dq=Microbial+loop+Azam&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiX9I-8wp3lAhVIUlAKHWLJDnk4ChDoAQguMAE#v=onepage&q=Microbial%20loop%20Azam&f=false Marine Microbiology: Ecology & Applications]''. Garland Science. pp. 147–148. ISBN 978-0-203-50311-9.</ref>
:::::::'''''Quote:''''' ''"A paper by '''Lawrence Pomeroy'''...entitled, The Oceans Food Web; A Changing Paradigm (Pomeroy 1974), is widely credited as being the most significant advance in our thinking about the role of microbes in marines systems. The main arguments in this paper were'': 
:::::::::''(a) that the main primary producers in the oceans are 'nanoplankton' (small phototrophs less than 60 μm in size) rather than the 'net' phytoplankton previously recognised; (b) that microbes are responsible for most of the metabolic activity in seawater; and (c) that dissolved and particulate organic matter forms an important source of nutrients in marine food webs which is consumed by heterotrophic microbes.'' 
:::::::''Evidence about the role of the heterotrophic bacterioplankton steadily accumulated until a series of seminal papers was published in the early 1980s by '''Farooq Azam''' and co-workers...They developed the concept of the 'microbial loop' to explain the flow and cycling of dissolved organic material (DOM) in the oceans...[which] represent[ed] a true paradigm shift, as thinking about the role of microbes in mineral cycling and food webs underwent a sudden and dramatic change. The original microbial loop model is now realized to be an oversimplification and it has been refined...but the concept remains a major breakthrough"''.<ref name="Munn2003"/>
::::::::*<small>Thus, it is safe to say that Pomeroy came up with the early ideas of microbial food, whilst Azam instead came up with the ''theory of the microbial loop'' and ''microbial loop'' itself.</small>
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<!-------------MOBILE VERSION ---------------------->
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'''[[#Astronomy & Universe (4)|Astronomy]]''' •
'''[[#Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)|Agriculture, Food & Beverage]]''' •
'''[[#Biology (2)|Biology]]''' (''[[#Paleontology (10)|Paleontology]]'') •
'''[[#Chemistry (5)|Chemistry]]''' •
'''[[#Computing (4)|Computing]]''' (''[[#Video-gaming (1)|Video-gaming]] • [[#Board Games (1)|Board-games]]'') •
'''[[#Mathematics (3)|Mathematics]]''' •
'''[[#Medicines (1)|Medicine]]''' (''[[#Disease Eradication (1)|Disease Eradication]]'' • ''[[#Genetics & Disease (5)|Genetics & Disease]]'' • ''[[#Medical Instruments (6)|Instruments]]'') •
'''[[#Physics (5)|Physics]]''' •
'''Engineering''' (''[[#Naval Engineering (1)|Naval]]'' • ''[[#Mechanical Engineering (7)|Mechanical]]'' • ''[[#Handtool Engineering (3)|Handtool]]'' • ''[[#Textile Engineering (3)|Textile]]'' (''[[#Clothing (2)|Clothing]]'') • ''[[#Architectural Engineering (4)|Architectural]]'') •
'''[[#Sport & Recreation (2)|Sport & Recreation]]''' •
'''[[#Disputed (2)|Disputed]]''' •
[[#Further Reading|Further Reading]] •
[[#Sources|Sources]] •
(''[[#Footnotes|Footnotes]]'' • ''[[#References|References]]'' • ''[[#Acknowledgements|Acknowledgements]]'') •
[[#External Links|External Links]] •
'''''Total Inventions & Discoveries Listed: 77'''''
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[List of Inventions and Discoveries in Medicine During the Islamic Golden Age|List of Inventions and Discoveries in Medicine During the Islamic Golden Age]]'''''
[[File:Polyurethanes 14.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Polyurethane.</div>]]
*'''''Aspergillus tubingensis'', Polyester Polyurethane Degradation'''—In 2017, in a collaboration between Pakistan and China,<ref name="Harry Cockburn (22nd September 2017)."/><ref name="Nikola Mečiarová (September 19th, 2017).">Nikola Mečiarová (September 19th, 2017). ''[https://ecobnb.com/blog/2017/09/plastic-eating-fungus-pakistan/ Plastic-eating fungus: Newly discovered species of “ecological” fungus in Pakistan]''. Ecobnb. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016024806/https://ecobnb.com/blog/2017/09/plastic-eating-fungus-pakistan/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Brad Jones (15th September 2017).">Brad Jones (15th September 2017). ''[https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/09/chinese-scientists-have-found-a-plastic-eating-fungus?utm_content=buffer46102&utm_medium=social&utm_source=facebook.com&utm_campaign=buffer Chinese scientists have found a fungus that could help save the planet - in a rubbish dump in Pakistan]''. World Economic Forum. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016032256/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/09/chinese-scientists-have-found-a-plastic-eating-fungus?utm_content=buffer46102&utm_medium=social&utm_source=facebook.com&utm_campaign=buffer WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref> Pakistani and Chinese scientists became the first to discover that a fungus called ''Aspergillus tubingensis''—found in landfill sites in Pakistan—was capable of consuming a special type of plastic known as ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyurethane polyester polyurethane]'' (a material made up of repeating ethylurea—C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub>N<sub>2</sub>O—units<ref name="pubchem">''[https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/12254#section=CAS Ethylurea]''. PubChem. ''[Not an Archievable Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref>).<ref name="Harry Cockburn (22nd September 2017).">Harry Cockburn (22nd September 2017). ''[https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/plastic-degrading-fungus-pakistan-rubbish-dump-islamabad-dr-sehroon-khan-a7962046.html Plastic-degrading fungus found in Pakistan rubbish dump]''. The Independent. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016024704/https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/plastic-degrading-fungus-pakistan-rubbish-dump-islamabad-dr-sehroon-khan-a7962046.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Nikola Mečiarová (September 19th, 2017)."/> It does this by ''"secret[ing] enzymes which break down the bonds between individual molecules and then use its mycelia to break them apart"''.<ref name="Brad Jones (15th September 2017)."/>
**The study was lead by Sehroon Khan (19??—Present) of the ''World Agroforestry Centre'' at the ''Kunming Institute of Biology'' at the ''Chinese Academy of Sciences'' in China.<ref name="Harry Cockburn (22nd September 2017)."/><ref name="Nikola Mečiarová (September 19th, 2017)."/><ref name="Brad Jones (15th September 2017)."/> It is not the first time that scientists have known that microbial organisms can break down plastics, but what is unique about this study in particular is that it is the first time where ''Aspergillus tubingensis'' has been found to break down plastic.<ref name="Nikola Mečiarová (September 19th, 2017)."/> 
**''Aspergillus tubingensis'' is a common fungus that lives in soil.<ref name="Nikola Mečiarová (September 19th, 2017)."/> However, the study's findings are not as simple as have been reported, as there are a complex range of factors which influence how it behaves; most notably temperature, pH balance of its surrounding and the type of culture medium it is exposed to.<ref name="Nikola Mečiarová (September 19th, 2017)."/> Given the right conditions, it is capable of completely breaking down plastic into organic matter within weeks.<ref name="Nikola Mečiarová (September 19th, 2017)."/>

[[File:Nrmicro3326-f1.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Azam's microbial loop. Considered a breakthrough in marine science. It is essentially a food cycle. Two scientists were important to its development and discovery; Farooq Azam and Lawrence Pomeroy.</div>]]
*'''Microbial ''Loop''/Microbial ''Food Web'''''—In 1983,<ref name="F. Azam; T. Fenchel; J. G. Field; J. S. Graf; L. A. Meyer-Rei1; F. Thingstad (January 20th, 1983).">F. Azam; T. Fenchel; J. G. Field; J. S. Graf; L. A. Meyer-Rei1; F. Thingstad (January 20th, 1983). ''[https://www.int-res.com/articles/meps/10/m010p257.pdf The Ecological Role of Water-Column Microbes in the Sea]''. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 10: 257-263. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015051307/https://www.int-res.com/articles/meps/10/m010p257.pdf WayBackMachine]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref> Farooq Azam (19??—Present) was the first to develop a new marine microbiological theory known as the ''microbial loop''.<ref name="Munn2003"/> The theory was so profound that it is still referred to as a ''"major breakthrough"''.<ref name="Munn2003"/> Since then, science historians and marine biologists deservedly give Azam credit for the theory (alternatively known as the ''"microbial food web"''). His discovery lead to the theory's firm ''"establishment, formulation and refinement"'' across literature.<ref name="HessenTranvik1998">Dag O. Hessen; Lars J. Tranvik (16 July 1998). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bmkaYfrkQ4UC&pg=PA242&dq=Microbial+loop+Azam&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjyvaGFw53lAhUOaFAKHYzvCGMQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=Microbial%20loop%20Azam&f=false Aquatic Humic Substances: Ecology and Biogeochemistry]''. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 242. ISBN 978-3-540-63910-7.</ref> In effect, the microbial loop describes what happens to carbon when carbon-based life forms die; simply put DOM(/POM<ref name="Munn2003"/>; or dissolved organic matter/particulate organic matter<ref name="Munn2003"/> is consumed by) → bacteria → grazers → (then reaching the) higher trophic levels.<ref name="GasolKirchman2018">Josep M. Gasol; David L. Kirchman (27 March 2018). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKJFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8&dq=Microbial+loop+Azam&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiHgcCEwp3lAhUEZ1AKHXw-CTcQ6AEINTAC#v=onepage&q=Microbial%20loop%20Azam&f=false Microbial Ecology of the Oceans]''. John Wiley & Sons. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-119-10718-7.</ref><ref name="Miller2009">Charles B. Miller (1 April 2009). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ltxNZJP5Ej4C&pg=PA92&dq=Microbial+loop+Azam&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiHgcCEwp3lAhUEZ1AKHXw-CTcQ6AEIVjAH#v=onepage&q=Microbial%20loop%20Azam&f=false Biological Oceanography]''. John Wiley & Sons. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-4443-1112-9.</ref>
**However, some also credit another important researcher alongside him, Lawrence Pomeroy (19??—Present), in the introductory sections of the microbial loop theory in marine microbiology textbooks.<ref group="n.">
Some books also credit other authors in passing mentions as contributing to the theory in the introductory chapters of marine microbiology textbooks when discussing the microbial loop (or microbial food web), but it is unclear precisely what their contributions were since their mentions are so generically and hastility put together without actually any reference to precisely what makes them notable or unique. These other scientists include John Stout (1963), Amyan Macfadyan (1963), Williams (1981), Sieburth & Davies (1982).
#David C. Coleman (2010). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=odIcN_JKKfUC&pg=PA63&dq=Microbial+loop+Azam&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwja8YG-wZ3lAhUPPFAKHeUYCEk4ChDoAQhWMAg#v=onepage&q=Microbial%20loop%20Azam&f=false Big Ecology: The Emergence of Ecosystem Science]''. University of California Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-520-26475-5.
#K. Salonen; T. Kairesalo; R.I. Jones (6 December 2012). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l6jsCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA107&dq=Microbial+loop+Azam&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj46-vvwJ3lAhXFa1AKHXppC3gQ6AEIRDAE#v=onepage&q=Microbial%20loop%20Azam&f=false Dissolved Organic Matter in Lacustrine Ecosystems: Energy Source and System Regulator]''. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 107. ISBN 978-94-011-2474-4.
Most scholars and historians however do not credit them at all, but solely give credit to Azam and Pomeroy.
#Johanna Laybourn-Parry; Jemma Wadham (14 August 2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_RXVBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT48&dq=Microbial+loop+Azam&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiX9I-8wp3lAhVIUlAKHWLJDnk4ChDoAQhdMAg#v=onepage&q=Microbial%20loop%20Azam&f=false Antarctic Lakes]''. OUP Oxford. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-19-164932-5.
#Colin Munn (16 October 2003). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1_S4cJYT3DUC&pg=PA148&dq=Microbial+loop+Azam&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiX9I-8wp3lAhVIUlAKHWLJDnk4ChDoAQguMAE#v=onepage&q=Microbial%20loop%20Azam&f=false Marine Microbiology: Ecology & Applications]''. Garland Science. pp. 147–148. ISBN 978-0-203-50311-9.
</ref> However, there are clear differences in their work, and this has been made apparent by fellow marine microbiologist Colin Munn (19??—Present), who details their individual contributions in ''"Marine Microbiology: Ecology & Applications"'' (2003):<ref name="Munn2003">Colin Munn (16 October 2003). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1_S4cJYT3DUC&pg=PA148&dq=Microbial+loop+Azam&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiX9I-8wp3lAhVIUlAKHWLJDnk4ChDoAQguMAE#v=onepage&q=Microbial%20loop%20Azam&f=false Marine Microbiology: Ecology & Applications]''. Garland Science. pp. 147–148. ISBN 978-0-203-50311-9.</ref>
'''''Quote:''''' ''"A paper by '''Lawrence Pomeroy'''...entitled, The Oceans Food Web; A Changing Paradigm (Pomeroy 1974), is widely credited as being the most significant advance in our thinking about the role of microbes in marines systems. The main arguments in this paper were'': 
::''(a) that the main primary producers in the oceans are 'nanoplankton' (small phototrophs less than 60 μm in size) rather than the 'net' phytoplankton previously recognised; (b) that microbes are responsible for most of the metabolic activity in seawater; and (c) that dissolved and particulate organic matter forms an important source of nutrients in marine food webs which is consumed by heterotrophic microbes.'' 
''Evidence about the role of the heterotrophic bacterioplankton steadily accumulated until a series of seminal papers was published in the early 1980s by '''Farooq Azam''' and co-workers...They developed the concept of the 'microbial loop' to explain the flow and cycling of dissolved organic material (DOM) in the oceans...[which] represent[ed] a true paradigm shift, as thinking about the role of microbes in mineral cycling and food webs underwent a sudden and dramatic change. The original microbial loop model is now realized to be an oversimplification and it has been refined...but the concept remains a major breakthrough"''.<ref name="Munn2003"/>
:*<small>Thus, it is safe to say that Pomeroy came up with the early ideas of microbial food, whilst Azam instead came up with the ''theory of the microbial loop'' and ''microbial loop'' itself.</small>
</div>
</div>

===Chemistry (5)===
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete.''
[[File:PANiCQ.jpg|thumb|right|200px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:90%;">PANiCNQ, the first true non-metallic magnet. For decades scientists across the world had tried to invent the world's first plastic polymer magnet ever since discovering that plastic had very minute traces of magnetism; but all had failed until 2003, when Pakistani scientist and head researcher Naveed A. Zaidi not only invented it, but also made one that was highly customisable in strength and for the first time was actually practical, not requiring near total 0 degree Kelvin conditions to operate. His magnet was also the first ''permanent'' plastic magnet. The magnet has a wide range of uses one of which includes food packaging, of which patents are already make its mention. It is the first time in history an object not made of metal has been created that is capable of magnetism.</div>]]
*'''Non-Metallic (Organic Polymer) Magnet'''—In 2003, the world's first true plastic magnet was invented by the British-Pakistani physicist, and head researcher,<ref name="Heather Thompson (October 1st, 2004).">Heather Thompson (October 1st, 2004). ''[https://www.mddionline.com/plastic-magnets-show-some-mettle Plastic Magnets Show Some Mettle]''. Medical Device & Diagnostic Industry (MDDI). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190524181443/https://www.mddionline.com/plastic-magnets-show-some-mettle WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 24th, 2019.</ref> Naveed A. Zaidi (19??—Present),<ref group="n.">Additional information on Zaidi can be found from the following which was found from the University of Durham website.

'''Quote''': ''"I graduated with a PhD in synthetic organic chemistry from Loughborough University. In 1990 I started my first postdoctoral position at Durham with Professor O'Hagan in the chemistry department, working on several projects leading to polymers, in 1997 collaborating with the IRC (Prof. Jim Feast) in polyamide research. After spending a year on the joint project between chemistry (Prof. Martin Bryce) and physics (Dr. Graham Cross) on the optoelectronic materials. I joined Andy Monkman's OEM group in 1999, and we are currently leading the way into preparing high molecular weight polyaniline at low temperature and also investigating into a better dopant than the one in use at present. I am a keen squash & badminton player and often beat Andy at badminton to stay even. In summer I play cricket for the staff at Durham, weather permitting, and we have a lovely ground with a good view of countryside. My wife is an excellent cook and my two daughters Ayman and Zarlush keep me busy at home."''. 

#''[http://www.dur.ac.uk/oem.group/People/Naveed/naveed.htm Dr Naveed Zaidi]''. Undated. Durham University. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20070327170620/http://www.dur.ac.uk/oem.group/People/Naveed/naveed.htm WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 24th, 2019.</ref> at the University of Durham.<ref name="HussainMishra2018">Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain; Ajay Kumar Mishra (24 April 2018). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xI5XDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT153&dq=first+plastic+magnet+Zaidi&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiptvLupbTiAhWRQxUIHQDuDpQQ6AEIQDAF#v=onepage&q=first%20plastic%20magnet%20Zaidi&f=false Nanocomposites for Pollution Control]''. CRC Press. p. 153. ISBN 978-1-351-38793-4.</ref><ref name="zaidi">''[https://www.dur.ac.uk/news/newsitem/?itemno=3719 Durham scientists create world’s first practical plastic magnet]''. October 1st, 2004. Durham University. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190524140054/https://www.dur.ac.uk/news/newsitem/?itemno=3719 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 24th, 2019.</ref><ref name="MukherjeeBoudouris2017">Sanjoy Mukherjee; Bryan W. Boudouris (22 June 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O2gpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8&dq=PANiCNQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi-xrnJwLTiAhWMSxUIHf9JD8YQ6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=PANiCNQ&f=false Organic Radical Polymers: New Avenues in Organic Electronics]''. Springer. p. 8. ISBN 978-3-319-58574-1.</ref> His team called it ''"PANiCNQ"''.<ref name="HussainMishra2018"/> The polymer is made from a combination of monomers of the reagents emeraldine polyaniline (PANI) and tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ).<ref name="MukherjeeBoudouris2017"/><ref name="KaliaKango2014"/> It is the world's first true non-metallic magnet because it was the first plastic to have passed the elemental test of magnetism.<ref name="Matthew Killeya (30 August 2004)."/>
**PANiCNQ can be further strengthened and ''"made to measure"'' (customised in other words);<ref name="Matthew Killeya (30 August 2004)."/> when PANiCNQ was first revealed to the public the minimum magnetic strength of the plastic was demonstrated to be 1/100th that of a metallic magnet, and was also stable in air and could conduct electricity.<ref name="CERN">''[https://cerncourier.com/new-polymer-enables-room-temperature-plastic-magnet/ New polymer enables room-temperature plastic magnet]''. October 3rd, 2004. CERN Courier. International Journal of High-Energy Physics. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190524165438/https://cerncourier.com/new-polymer-enables-room-temperature-plastic-magnet/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 24th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Tanuj (May 22nd, 2019).">Tanuj (May 22nd, 2019). ''[https://newdailyherald.com/2019/05/22/magnetic-plastics-market-drivers-restraints-opportunities-challenges/ MAGNETIC PLASTICS MARKET : DRIVERS ,RESTRAINTS, OPPORTUNITIES & CHALLENGES]''. New Daily Herald. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190524165827/https://newdailyherald.com/2019/05/22/magnetic-plastics-market-drivers-restraints-opportunities-challenges/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 24th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Kalyani Badkas (May 2019).">Kalyani Badkas (May 2019). ''[https://digitaldaynews.com/2019/05/16/global-magnetic-plastics-market-revenue-to-witness-rapid-growth-in-the-near-future/ Global Magnetic Plastics Market Revenue to Witness Rapid Growth in the Near Future]''. Digital Day News ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190524181128/https://digitaldaynews.com/2019/05/16/global-magnetic-plastics-market-revenue-to-witness-rapid-growth-in-the-near-future/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 24th, 2019.</ref> It is workable up to 77°C (350.15 °K) and takes between 2—3 months to produce magnetism after synthesis.<ref name="Staff (15th September 2004).">Staff (15th September 2004). ''[https://www.electronicsweekly.com/news/research-news/device-rd/polymer-magnet-is-a-first-claims-university-2004-09/ Polymer magnet is a first, claims University]''. Electronics Weekly. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190524170107/https://www.electronicsweekly.com/news/research-news/device-rd/polymer-magnet-is-a-first-claims-university-2004-09/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 24th, 2019.</ref>
***Physically PANiCNQ consists of a nitrogen-carrying backbone with charge transfer side groups; which in combination produces a very stable polymer with high density localised spins;<ref name="HussainMishra2018"/><ref name="KaliaKango2014">Kalia, Susheel; Kango, Sarita; Kumar, Amit; Haldorai, Yuvaraj; Kumari, Bandna; Kumar, Rajesh (2014). ''[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00396-014-3357-y Magnetic polymer nanocomposites for environmental and biomedical applications]''. Colloid and Polymer Science. 292 (9): 2025–2052. doi:10.1007/s00396-014-3357-y. ISSN 0303-402X.</ref> meaning that its magnetism is permanent.<ref name="Tzu-Tse Huang (October 20th, 2006).">Tzu-Tse Huang (October 20th, 2006). ''[https://patents.google.com/patent/US7775671B2/en Lens cap set and a lens device utilizing the same]''. Google Patents (Patent No. US7775671B2). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190524182348/https://patents.google.com/patent/US7775671B2/en WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 24th, 2019.</ref> In even more simple terms ''"[t]he electron transfer from PANI to TCNQ forms two oppositely charged radical species, which in turn governs the magnetic properties of the material"''.<ref name="MukherjeeBoudouris2017"/>
**Prior to this, plastic magnetism was only observed at ''extremely'' low temperatures and the magnetic force was also found to have been very weak.<ref name="ZaidiGiblin2004">Zaidi, Naveed A.; Giblin, S.R.; Terry, I.; Monkman, A.P. (2004). ''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032386104005749?via%3Dihub Room temperature magnetic order in an organic magnet derived from polyaniline]''. Polymer. 45 (16): 5683–5689. doi:10.1016/j.polymer.2004.06.002. ISSN 0032-3861.</ref> This was one of the reasons why Durham was not the first to lay claim to such an invention.<ref name="Matthew Killeya (30 August 2004).">Matthew Killeya (30 August 2004). ''[https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn6326-first-practical-plastic-magnets-created/ First practical plastic magnets created]''. New Scientist. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20050324085118/https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns/?id=dn6326 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 24th, 2019.</ref> Others claimed to have invented it as well, but crucially theirs ''"only function[ed] at extremely low temperatures"'' or ''"their magnetism at room temperature [was] too feeble"''.<ref name="Matthew Killeya (30 August 2004)."/>
***Temporary room temperature magnetism (called a ''"phase"'') was previously detected in the non-polymer—and pure element based compound—Carbon-60.<ref name="ZaidiGiblin2004"/> Another team lead by Jerry Torrance in 1988<ref group="n.">Hussain and Mishra (2018) have accidentally written 1998 for Torrance's experiment, as opposed to 1988. The paper was actually written in 1988 and can be found within this footnote.
#Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain; Ajay Kumar Mishra (24 April 2018). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xI5XDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT153&dq=first+plastic+magnet+Zaidi&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiptvLupbTiAhWRQxUIHQDuDpQQ6AEIQDAF#v=onepage&q=first%20plastic%20magnet%20Zaidi&f=false Nanocomposites for Pollution Control]''. CRC Press. p. 153. ISBN 978-1-351-38793-4.
#Torrance, J. B.; Bagus, P. S.; Johannsen, I.; Nazzal, A. I.; Parkin, S. S. P.; Batail, P. (1988). ''[https://aip.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.340916 Ferromagnetic interactions in organic solids: An overview of theory and experiment (invited)]''. Journal of Applied Physics. 63 (8): 2962–2965. doi:10.1063/1.340916. ISSN 0021-8979.
</ref> had claimed to have produced a plastic magnet where it's magnetism lasted up to 400°C—but crucially this was not reproducible, and it's documented magnetic effect was very weak because it attempted to use an oxidising process to produce magnetism (where a foreign compound or element is introduced),<ref name="ZaidiGiblin2004"/> suggesting it was perhaps only an anomaly.<ref name="ZaidiGiblin2004"/> In fact the original author later conceded, describing Zaidi's invention as ''"a significant scientific breakthrough"''.<ref name="Matthew Killeya (30 August 2004)."/>
****Torrance's team was only capable of producing plastic magnetism only when their polymer was constantly oxidised with Iodine.<ref name="KaliaKango2014"/> This was a temporary magnetism as the process was inherently destabilising, thus leading to a very, very weak magnetic effect<ref name="ZaidiGiblin2004"/>), thus physical magnetism was both created and impeded with the introduction of oxidising agents.<ref name="ZaidiGiblin2004"/>
***In 2001, US researchers at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln laid claim ''"to have created the world's first plastic magnet"'',<ref name="Matthew Killeya (30 August 2004)."/> however, their claims were ridiculous as their polymer ''"only worked below 10 [degrees] kelvin"'' (-263.15°C).<ref name="Matthew Killeya (30 August 2004)."/> Furthermore, it's magnetism was also very feeble like the many claims before it.<ref name="ZaidiGiblin2004"/> Zaidi's invention on the other hand passed ''"the elementary test of magnetism"'' at room temperature that others had not—and, furthermore—demonstrated PANiCNQ was the first to have a strongly magnetic strength; as it was directly capable of ''"pick[ing] up iron filings"'' (and worked at room temperature); which was the test that other researchers were not able to pass.<ref name="Matthew Killeya (30 August 2004)."/>

[[File:Indus valley civilisation distillation.jpg|thumb|left|181px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;font-size:80%;">Distillation apparatus from ancient Pakistan for producing essential oils (without Avicenna's refrigerated coil).</div>]]
:::::::::*'''Distillation'''—Abu Ali al-Ḥusayn ibn Abd Allah ibn al-Ḥasan ibn Ali ibn Sina (Avicenna; 980—1037) was the first to invent the refrigerated coil,<ref name="Komeh-Nkrumah (September 2nd, 2014).">Komeh-Nkrumah (September 2nd, 2014). ''[https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/d9/34/16/2eaa5e489a9ca0/US8821948.pdf THERAPEUTIC, BIO-AFFECTING AND BODY TREATING COMPOSITION]''. United States Patent. Patent No.: US 8,821,948 B2. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190311031139/https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/d9/34/16/2eaa5e489a9ca0/US8821948.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 11th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Myers2003">Richard Myers (2003). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oS50J3-IfZsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Basics+of+Chemistry&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiBnIOdhvngAhX4SBUIHWf2BvoQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Basics%20of%20Chemistry&f=false The Basics of Chemistry]''. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-313-3166</ref><ref name="Edwards2015">Victoria H. Edwards (31 August 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OoyECgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10&dq=avicenna+refrigerated+coil&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwir3Mi7hvngAhX9UBUIHbanAacQ6AEISjAG#v=onepage&q=avicenna%20refrigerated%20coil&f=false The Aromatherapy Companion: Medicinal Uses/Ayurvedic Healing/Body-Care Blends/Perfumes & Scents/Emotional Health & Well-Being]''. Storey Publishing, LLC. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-1-61212-786-6.</ref> which cooled down vapours,<ref name="Madoc Arundel, Christopher Miller (September 2014)."/> condensing them into liquid.<ref name="Maryam Khoubnasabjafari, Eliza Sadeghifar, Majid Khalili, Jalil Vaez-Gharamaleki, Abolghasem Jouyban (2011).">Maryam Khoubnasabjafari, Eliza Sadeghifar, Majid Khalili, Jalil Vaez-Gharamaleki, Abolghasem Jouyban (2011). ''[http://www.scielo.org.co/pdf/rccqf/v40n2/v40n2a07.pdf Contribution of Iranian chemists in research activities, on the occasion of the International Year of Chemistry]''. Rev. Colomb. Cienc. Quím. Farm. Vol. 40 (2). pg. 240-260, 2011. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190311031237/http://www.scielo.org.co/pdf/rccqf/v40n2/v40n2a07.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 11th, 2019.</ref> He used this invention of his to extract the first essential oil from roses,<ref name="Kaufmann2018">Cher Kaufmann (17 April 2018). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ezBUDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT52&dq=avicenna+refrigerated+coil&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwir3Mi7hvngAhX9UBUIHbanAacQ6AEINTAC#v=onepage&q=avicenna%20refrigerated%20coil&f=false Nature's Essential Oils: Aromatic Alchemy for Well-Being (Countryman Know How)]''. Countryman Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-58157-460-9.</ref> which were used to make perfume. Indeed, ''"[t]his is a chilled coil within which the steamed distillate is condensed back into liquid without having to wait for the natural cooling process to take place"''.<ref name="Madoc Arundel, Christopher Miller (September 2014).">Madoc Arundel, Christopher Miller (September 2014). ''[http://brewers.aethelmearc.org/MedievalRum.pdf Rum as a Medieval European Possibility]''.  Society for Creative Anachronism, Inc. (SCA) and the American Homebrewers' Association. pg. 1-17. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190311030450/http://brewers.aethelmearc.org/MedievalRum.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 11th, 2019.</ref> Distillation however, was first invented in the Indus Valley (c. 7000 BC—c. 1300 BC).<ref name="VV.2016">AA. VV. (11 April 2016). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pmbyCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2&dq=Paolo+Rovesti+indus&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiTrJ-qmf3gAhXFSRUIHWnUCzcQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Paolo%20Rovesti%20indus&f=false Nitrogeno]''. Fontana Editore. pp. 2. ISBN 978-88-98750-26-9.</ref>
:::::::::**There is evidence which proves that essential oil production was known to the Indus Valley Civilisation, the people of whom's descendants inhabit modern day Pakistan (indeed one of the theories is that some of these people migrated to the south of India, and indeed there is a genetic connection through the LM-20 haplogroup gene which shows modern day Pakistanis are more related to southern Dravidian Indians than northern Gangetic Indians<ref name="russianlm20">''[http://gentis.ru/info/ydna-tutorial/hg-l/m20 Описание гаплогруппы L-M20 (Description of haplogroup L-M20)]''. Gentis (История Вашего Рода, записанная в ДНК). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190312184932/http://gentis.ru/info/ydna-tutorial/hg-l/m20 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 12th, 2019.</ref>). The Indus Valley Civilisation however didn't use a refrigerated coil (see picture); they used the system shown adjacent.
:::::::::**The Indus Valley distillation apparatus was discovered in 1975 by Paolo Rovesti (1902—1983<ref name="RhindPirie2012">Jennifer Peace Rhind; David Pirie (2012). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=70wSBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA14&dq=Paolo+Rovesti+indus&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiTrJ-qmf3gAhXFSRUIHWnUCzcQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=Paolo%20Rovesti%20indus&f=false Essential Oils: A Handbook for Aromatherapy Practice]''. Singing Dragon. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-84819-089-4.</ref>). He discovered it in the museum of Taxila, and noted that it was a ''"perfectly preserved distillation apparatus made of terracotta"'' where the ''"presence of perfume containers also exhibited in the museum dating from the same period, about 3000 BC, confirmed its use for the preparation of aromatic oils"''.<ref name="Lawless2012">Julia Lawless (22 November 2012). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xIPNY-6u4h8C&pg=PA14&dq=avicenna+refrigerated+coil&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwir3Mi7hvngAhX9UBUIHbanAacQ6AEIPzAE#v=onepage&q=avicenna%20refrigerated%20coil&f=false Encyclopedia of Essential Oils: The complete guide to the use of aromatic oils in aromatherapy, herbalism, health and well-being]''. (Text Only). HarperCollins Publishers. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-00-740521-3.</ref> A second distillation apparatus was also discovered in Afghanistan dated to 2,000 BC.<ref name="ormus">''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sj_bBoDtP9YC&pg=PA116&dq=Paolo+Rovesti+indus&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiTrJ-qmf3gAhXFSRUIHWnUCzcQ6AEINzAC#v=onepage&q=Paolo%20Rovesti%20indus&f=false ORMUS The Secret Alchemy of Mary Magdalene ~ Revealed ~ (Part A)]''. ORMUS® USA/Japan. December 2007. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-9793737-0-1.</ref> Distillation was previously thought to have been no older than a 1,000 years old.<ref name="ormus"/>

[[File:1799386198001 5797577503001 2219736993001-vs.jpg|thumb|right|90px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:60%;">Gold-assaying using lydite rock.</div>]]
*'''Touchstone'''—An assaying tool to identify the purity levels of metals such as gold are known as touchstones, which consist of a stone of black siliceous schist (a type of lydite rock).<ref name="Kenny2011"/><ref name="Cropley2019"/> They are rubbed against objects and then the markings are compared to known pure gold samples.<ref name="Kenny2011"/><ref name="Cropley2019"/>  
**Touchstones were first used in the Indus Valley in 3,500 BC.<ref name="Cropley2019">David H. Cropley (16 February 2019). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AHyGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA29&dq=touchstones+indus+valley&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjvrZqAn7riAhXiRhUIHfmjDvwQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=touchstones%20indus%20valley&f=false Homo Problematis Solvendis–Problem-solving Man: A History of Human Creativity]''. Springer. p. 29. ISBN 9789811331015.</ref> Touchstones were also used in ancient Greece<ref name="Cropley2019"/> with the earliest archeological evidence for their use in Europe being in the 8th century BC (800 BC—701 BC).<ref name="Kenny2011">Shannon L. Kenny (12 April 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TBGzEK4laJ0C&pg=PA264&dq=touchstones+indus+valley&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjvrZqAn7riAhXiRhUIHfmjDvwQ6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=touchstones%20indus%20valley&f=false Gold: A Cultural Encyclopedia: A Cultural Encyclopedia]''. ABC-CLIO. p. 264-265. ISBN 978-0-313-38431-8.</ref> The earliest reference in China was in 1387.<ref name="Kenny2011"/>
**Evidence from an ancient Harappan jewellers home found in modern day India, in Banawali, in the Hissar district in Haryana (historically a part of the ancient lands of the Punjab until 1966, when it was forcibly renamed to Haryana by the Indian government<ref name="Bhargava2005">S. C. Bhatt, Gopal K. Bhargava (2005). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CP-kKXZ8rTIC&pg=PA93&dq=haryana+carved+1966&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjkr8qn3b3iAhWRQhUIHai9DjsQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=haryana%20carved%201966&f=false  Land and people of Indian states and union territories: (in 36 volumes)]''. 9. Haryana. Gyan Publishing House. p. 93. ISBN 978-81-7835-365-4.</ref>).<ref name="Singh20082">Upinder Singh (2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA153&dq=Touchstone:+In+Banawali&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjC053TobriAhVcThUIHaOWClkQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=Touchstone%3A%20In%20Banawali&f=false A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century]''. Pearson Education India. pp. 152–153. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0.</ref> The home was filled with a large number of beads of gold, lapis lazuli and carnelian and tiny weights.<ref name="Singh20082"/> The touchstone itself showed markings of streaks of gold (indicating that it was indeed used for assaying).<ref name="Singh20082"/><ref name="Lal1997">Braj Basi Lal (1 January 1997). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3_1tAAAAMAAJ&dq=Touchstone%3A+In+Banawali&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=Touchstone The earliest civilization of South Asia: rise, maturity, and decline]''. Aryan Books International. p. 127. ISBN 978-81-7305-107-4.</ref><ref name="Osada2006">Toshiki Osada (2006). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O-ZtAAAAMAAJ&q=Touchstone:+In+Banawali&dq=Touchstone:+In+Banawali&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjC053TobriAhVcThUIHaOWClkQ6AEIUzAI Indus civilization: text & context]''. Manohar Publishers & Distributors. pp. 22–23. ISBN 978-81-7304-682-7.</ref>

[[File:1-s2.0-S0048969718327104-ga1 lrg.jpg|thumb|left|120px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;font-size:90%;">Xanthated-Arsenic capture generation. Removing arsenic from water was difficult and expensive. However it can now very cheaply be done with modified watermelon rind.</div>]]
::::::*'''Xanthated Salt-Arsenic Capture'''—In 2018, a major scientific breakthrough was made when scientists at the ''"University of Agriculture, Faisalabad"'' were the first to develop a chemical modification to watermelon rind which resulted in the organic structure being fully capable of binding to arsenic.<ref name="News Desk (August 26th, 2018).">News Desk (August 26th, 2018). ''[https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2018/08/26/cheap-arsenic-water-filter-developed-by-pakistani-scientists-using-watermelon-rind/ Cheap arsenic water filter developed by Pakistani scientists using watermelon rind]''. Pakistan Today. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014111335/https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2018/08/26/cheap-arsenic-water-filter-developed-by-pakistani-scientists-using-watermelon-rind/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref> They developed this technology by heating, drying, and oven-firing the rind, crushing it into a fine powder, reacting it with sulfuric acid (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>) which causes it's biopolymer rings to open, exposing many important reactive functional groups.<ref name="News Desk (August 26th, 2018)."/> They then bind these exposed functional groups to carbon disulfide (CS<sub>2</sub>)—sulfide uniquely binds to arsenic—rendering the rind capable of netting arsenic,<ref name="News Desk (August 26th, 2018)."/> with a success rate of 94%—100%.<ref name="ShakoorNiazi2018">Shakoor, Muhammad Bilal; Niazi, Nabeel Khan; Bibi, Irshad; Shahid, Muhammad; Sharif, Fakhra; Bashir, Safdar; Shaheen, Sabry M.; Wang, Hailong; Tsang, Daniel C.W.; Ok, Yong Sik; Rinklebe, Jörg (2018). ''"[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718327104?via%3Dihub Arsenic removal by natural and chemically modified water melon rind in aqueous solutions and groundwater]"''. Science of The Total Environment. 645: 1444–1455. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.218. ISSN 0048-9697.</ref> It works especially well for Arsenic with a valency of III.<ref name="ShakoorNiazi2018"/>
::::::**The idea was first formulated in 2014 by Nabeel Khan Niazi (19??—Present), who's idea was subsequently funded by ''"Grand Challenges Canada"''.<ref name="Inga Vesper (15th August, 2018).">Inga Vesper (15th August, 2018). ''[https://www.scidev.net/asia-pacific/innovation/news/watermelon-rind-cheaply-filters-arsenic-in-groundwater.html Watermelon rind cheaply filters arsenic in groundwater]''. Sci Dev Net. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014113646/https://www.scidev.net/asia-pacific/innovation/news/watermelon-rind-cheaply-filters-arsenic-in-groundwater.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref> The use of biological xanthates is not a novel idea, however, what makes this particularly groundbreaking are three things; the first being the successful integration of watermelon-rind with xanthate salts (whereas prior to this scientists had only used groundnut shell, mango leaf, rice husk and sugarcane bagasse).<ref name="Inga Vesper (15th August, 2018)."/> The second is it's effectiveness (extremely high; whereas previous attempts using biological xanthates met with very ''"limited success"'').<ref name="Inga Vesper (15th August, 2018)."/> Lastly, and most importantly, Niazi's filter was the first biological xanthate to have been capable of removing arsenic whereas before it had never been achieved.<ref name="Inga Vesper (15th August, 2018)."/>
::::::**The importance of the invention is highlighted by the fact that arsenic poisoning affects 150 million people across 50 countries, with 43,000 people dying every year from unsanitized water polluted with the metal.<ref name="Inga Vesper (15th August, 2018)."/> According to ''"SciDev'', ''"[t]he most affected countries are Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan though arsenic pollution is also present in China, parts of Europe and the Americas"''.<ref name="Inga Vesper (15th August, 2018)."/> The filter developed by these researchers is able to process 20,000 mls of water per day (approximately 834 mls per hour), and can be used for between 6 to 8 months before needing to be replaced.<ref name="Inga Vesper (15th August, 2018)."/> Each filter costs $32 dollars to purchase.<ref name="Inga Vesper (15th August, 2018)."/>

*'''Variable Volume of Distribution Model'''—Sarfaraz K. Niazi (1949—Present) is a Pakistani-American who in 1976<ref name="Niazi1976">Niazi, Sarfaraz (1976). ''[https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022354915406495 Volume of Distribution as a Function of Time]''. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 65 (3): 452–454. doi:10.1002/jps.2600650339. ISSN 0022-3549.</ref> developed the  ''"variable...volume of distribution model for sum of exponential functions based on conservation of mass"''.<ref name="JanigroWesolowski2016">Janigro, Damir; Wesolowski, Carl A.; Wesolowski, Michal J.; Babyn, Paul S.; Wanasundara, Surajith N. (2016). ''[https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0158798 Time Varying Apparent Volume of Distribution and Drug Half-Lives Following Intravenous Bolus Injections]''. PLOS ONE. 11 (7): e0158798. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0158798. ISSN 1932-6203.</ref> This variable volume model implies an explicit relationship between redistribution and the rate of volume of drug distribution expansion in time.<ref name="JanigroWesolowski2016"/> In simple terms his model calculates when the drug volume reaches a particular size relative to a drugs volume of distribution inside the body.<ref name="JanigroWesolowski2016"/> 
**His model is able to provide new information about time based tissue drug effects for tissue metabolism and/or eliminations.<ref name="JanigroWesolowski2016"/>
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'''[[#Astronomy & Universe (4)|Astronomy]]''' •
'''[[#Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)|Agriculture, Food & Beverage]]''' •
'''[[#Biology (2)|Biology]]''' (''[[#Paleontology (10)|Paleontology]]'') •
'''[[#Chemistry (5)|Chemistry]]''' •
'''[[#Computing (4)|Computing]]''' (''[[#Video-gaming (1)|Video-gaming]] • [[#Board Games (1)|Board-games]]'') •
'''[[#Mathematics (3)|Mathematics]]''' •
'''[[#Medicines (1)|Medicine]]''' (''[[#Disease Eradication (1)|Disease Eradication]]'' • ''[[#Genetics & Disease (5)|Genetics & Disease]]'' • ''[[#Medical Instruments (6)|Instruments]]'') •
'''[[#Physics (5)|Physics]]''' •
'''Engineering''' (''[[#Naval Engineering (1)|Naval]]'' • ''[[#Mechanical Engineering (7)|Mechanical]]'' • ''[[#Handtool Engineering (3)|Handtool]]'' • ''[[#Textile Engineering (3)|Textile]]'' (''[[#Clothing (2)|Clothing]]'') • ''[[#Architectural Engineering (4)|Architectural]]'') •
'''[[#Sport & Recreation (2)|Sport & Recreation]]''' •
'''[[#Disputed (2)|Disputed]]''' •
[[#Further Reading|Further Reading]] •
[[#Sources|Sources]] •
(''[[#Footnotes|Footnotes]]'' • ''[[#References|References]]'' • ''[[#Acknowledgements|Acknowledgements]]'') •
[[#External Links|External Links]] •
'''''Total Inventions & Discoveries Listed: 77'''''
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete.''
[[File:PANiCQ.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:90%;">PANiCNQ, the first true non-metallic magnet. For decades scientists across the world had tried to invent the world's first plastic polymer magnet ever since discovering that plastic had very minute traces of magnetism; but all had failed until 2003, when Pakistani scientist and head researcher Naveed A. Zaidi not only invented it, but also made one that was highly customisable in strength and for the first time was actually practical, not requiring near total 0 degree Kelvin conditions to operate. His magnet was also the first ''permanent'' plastic magnet. The magnet has a wide range of uses one of which includes food packaging, of which patents are already make its mention. It is the first time in history an object not made of metal has been created that is capable of magnetism.</div>]]
*'''Non-Metallic (Organic Polymer) Magnet'''—In 2003, the world's first true plastic magnet was invented by the British-Pakistani physicist, and head researcher,<ref name="Heather Thompson (October 1st, 2004).">Heather Thompson (October 1st, 2004). ''[https://www.mddionline.com/plastic-magnets-show-some-mettle Plastic Magnets Show Some Mettle]''. Medical Device & Diagnostic Industry (MDDI). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190524181443/https://www.mddionline.com/plastic-magnets-show-some-mettle WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 24th, 2019.</ref> Naveed A. Zaidi (19??—Present),<ref group="n.">Additional information on Zaidi can be found from the following which was found from the University of Durham website.

'''Quote''': ''"I graduated with a PhD in synthetic organic chemistry from Loughborough University. In 1990 I started my first postdoctoral position at Durham with Professor O'Hagan in the chemistry department, working on several projects leading to polymers, in 1997 collaborating with the IRC (Prof. Jim Feast) in polyamide research. After spending a year on the joint project between chemistry (Prof. Martin Bryce) and physics (Dr. Graham Cross) on the optoelectronic materials. I joined Andy Monkman's OEM group in 1999, and we are currently leading the way into preparing high molecular weight polyaniline at low temperature and also investigating into a better dopant than the one in use at present. I am a keen squash & badminton player and often beat Andy at badminton to stay even. In summer I play cricket for the staff at Durham, weather permitting, and we have a lovely ground with a good view of countryside. My wife is an excellent cook and my two daughters Ayman and Zarlush keep me busy at home."''. 

#''[http://www.dur.ac.uk/oem.group/People/Naveed/naveed.htm Dr Naveed Zaidi]''. Undated. Durham University. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20070327170620/http://www.dur.ac.uk/oem.group/People/Naveed/naveed.htm WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 24th, 2019.</ref> at the University of Durham.<ref name="HussainMishra2018">Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain; Ajay Kumar Mishra (24 April 2018). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xI5XDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT153&dq=first+plastic+magnet+Zaidi&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiptvLupbTiAhWRQxUIHQDuDpQQ6AEIQDAF#v=onepage&q=first%20plastic%20magnet%20Zaidi&f=false Nanocomposites for Pollution Control]''. CRC Press. p. 153. ISBN 978-1-351-38793-4.</ref><ref name="zaidi">''[https://www.dur.ac.uk/news/newsitem/?itemno=3719 Durham scientists create world’s first practical plastic magnet]''. October 1st, 2004. Durham University. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190524140054/https://www.dur.ac.uk/news/newsitem/?itemno=3719 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 24th, 2019.</ref><ref name="MukherjeeBoudouris2017">Sanjoy Mukherjee; Bryan W. Boudouris (22 June 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O2gpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8&dq=PANiCNQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi-xrnJwLTiAhWMSxUIHf9JD8YQ6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=PANiCNQ&f=false Organic Radical Polymers: New Avenues in Organic Electronics]''. Springer. p. 8. ISBN 978-3-319-58574-1.</ref> His team called it ''"PANiCNQ"''.<ref name="HussainMishra2018"/> The polymer is made from a combination of monomers of the reagents emeraldine polyaniline (PANI) and tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ).<ref name="MukherjeeBoudouris2017"/><ref name="KaliaKango2014"/> It is the world's first true non-metallic magnet because it was the first plastic to have passed the elemental test of magnetism.<ref name="Matthew Killeya (30 August 2004)."/>
**PANiCNQ can be further strengthened and ''"made to measure"'' (customised in other words);<ref name="Matthew Killeya (30 August 2004)."/> when PANiCNQ was first revealed to the public the minimum magnetic strength of the plastic was demonstrated to be 1/100th that of a metallic magnet, and was also stable in air and could conduct electricity.<ref name="CERN">''[https://cerncourier.com/new-polymer-enables-room-temperature-plastic-magnet/ New polymer enables room-temperature plastic magnet]''. October 3rd, 2004. CERN Courier. International Journal of High-Energy Physics. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190524165438/https://cerncourier.com/new-polymer-enables-room-temperature-plastic-magnet/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 24th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Tanuj (May 22nd, 2019).">Tanuj (May 22nd, 2019). ''[https://newdailyherald.com/2019/05/22/magnetic-plastics-market-drivers-restraints-opportunities-challenges/ MAGNETIC PLASTICS MARKET : DRIVERS ,RESTRAINTS, OPPORTUNITIES & CHALLENGES]''. New Daily Herald. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190524165827/https://newdailyherald.com/2019/05/22/magnetic-plastics-market-drivers-restraints-opportunities-challenges/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 24th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Kalyani Badkas (May 2019).">Kalyani Badkas (May 2019). ''[https://digitaldaynews.com/2019/05/16/global-magnetic-plastics-market-revenue-to-witness-rapid-growth-in-the-near-future/ Global Magnetic Plastics Market Revenue to Witness Rapid Growth in the Near Future]''. Digital Day News ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190524181128/https://digitaldaynews.com/2019/05/16/global-magnetic-plastics-market-revenue-to-witness-rapid-growth-in-the-near-future/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 24th, 2019.</ref> It is workable up to 77°C (350.15 °K) and takes between 2—3 months to produce magnetism after synthesis.<ref name="Staff (15th September 2004).">Staff (15th September 2004). ''[https://www.electronicsweekly.com/news/research-news/device-rd/polymer-magnet-is-a-first-claims-university-2004-09/ Polymer magnet is a first, claims University]''. Electronics Weekly. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190524170107/https://www.electronicsweekly.com/news/research-news/device-rd/polymer-magnet-is-a-first-claims-university-2004-09/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 24th, 2019.</ref>
***Physically PANiCNQ consists of a nitrogen-carrying backbone with charge transfer side groups; which in combination produces a very stable polymer with high density localised spins;<ref name="HussainMishra2018"/><ref name="KaliaKango2014">Kalia, Susheel; Kango, Sarita; Kumar, Amit; Haldorai, Yuvaraj; Kumari, Bandna; Kumar, Rajesh (2014). ''[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00396-014-3357-y Magnetic polymer nanocomposites for environmental and biomedical applications]''. Colloid and Polymer Science. 292 (9): 2025–2052. doi:10.1007/s00396-014-3357-y. ISSN 0303-402X.</ref> meaning that its magnetism is permanent.<ref name="Tzu-Tse Huang (October 20th, 2006).">Tzu-Tse Huang (October 20th, 2006). ''[https://patents.google.com/patent/US7775671B2/en Lens cap set and a lens device utilizing the same]''. Google Patents (Patent No. US7775671B2). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190524182348/https://patents.google.com/patent/US7775671B2/en WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 24th, 2019.</ref> In even more simple terms ''"[t]he electron transfer from PANI to TCNQ forms two oppositely charged radical species, which in turn governs the magnetic properties of the material"''.<ref name="MukherjeeBoudouris2017"/>
**Prior to this, plastic magnetism was only observed at ''extremely'' low temperatures and the magnetic force was also found to have been very weak.<ref name="ZaidiGiblin2004">Zaidi, Naveed A.; Giblin, S.R.; Terry, I.; Monkman, A.P. (2004). ''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032386104005749?via%3Dihub Room temperature magnetic order in an organic magnet derived from polyaniline]''. Polymer. 45 (16): 5683–5689. doi:10.1016/j.polymer.2004.06.002. ISSN 0032-3861.</ref> This was one of the reasons why Durham was not the first to lay claim to such an invention.<ref name="Matthew Killeya (30 August 2004).">Matthew Killeya (30 August 2004). ''[https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn6326-first-practical-plastic-magnets-created/ First practical plastic magnets created]''. New Scientist. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20050324085118/https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns/?id=dn6326 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 24th, 2019.</ref> Others claimed to have invented it as well, but crucially theirs ''"only function[ed] at extremely low temperatures"'' or ''"their magnetism at room temperature [was] too feeble"''.<ref name="Matthew Killeya (30 August 2004)."/>
***Temporary room temperature magnetism (called a ''"phase"'') was previously detected in the non-polymer—and pure element based compound—Carbon-60.<ref name="ZaidiGiblin2004"/> Another team lead by Jerry Torrance in 1988<ref group="n.">Hussain and Mishra (2018) have accidentally written 1998 for Torrance's experiment, as opposed to 1988. The paper was actually written in 1988 and can be found within this footnote.
#Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain; Ajay Kumar Mishra (24 April 2018). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xI5XDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT153&dq=first+plastic+magnet+Zaidi&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiptvLupbTiAhWRQxUIHQDuDpQQ6AEIQDAF#v=onepage&q=first%20plastic%20magnet%20Zaidi&f=false Nanocomposites for Pollution Control]''. CRC Press. p. 153. ISBN 978-1-351-38793-4.
#Torrance, J. B.; Bagus, P. S.; Johannsen, I.; Nazzal, A. I.; Parkin, S. S. P.; Batail, P. (1988). ''[https://aip.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.340916 Ferromagnetic interactions in organic solids: An overview of theory and experiment (invited)]''. Journal of Applied Physics. 63 (8): 2962–2965. doi:10.1063/1.340916. ISSN 0021-8979.
</ref> had claimed to have produced a plastic magnet where it's magnetism lasted up to 400°C—but crucially this was not reproducible, and it's documented magnetic effect was very weak because it attempted to use an oxidising process to produce magnetism (where a foreign compound or element is introduced),<ref name="ZaidiGiblin2004"/> suggesting it was perhaps only an anomaly.<ref name="ZaidiGiblin2004"/> In fact the original author later conceded, describing Zaidi's invention as ''"a significant scientific breakthrough"''.<ref name="Matthew Killeya (30 August 2004)."/>
****Torrance's team was only capable of producing plastic magnetism only when their polymer was constantly oxidised with Iodine.<ref name="KaliaKango2014"/> This was a temporary magnetism as the process was inherently destabilising, thus leading to a very, very weak magnetic effect<ref name="ZaidiGiblin2004"/>), thus physical magnetism was both created and impeded with the introduction of oxidising agents.<ref name="ZaidiGiblin2004"/>
***In 2001, US researchers at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln laid claim ''"to have created the world's first plastic magnet"'',<ref name="Matthew Killeya (30 August 2004)."/> however, their claims were ridiculous as their polymer ''"only worked below 10 [degrees] kelvin"'' (-263.15°C).<ref name="Matthew Killeya (30 August 2004)."/> Furthermore, it's magnetism was also very feeble like the many claims before it.<ref name="ZaidiGiblin2004"/> Zaidi's invention on the other hand passed ''"the elementary test of magnetism"'' at room temperature that others had not—and, furthermore—demonstrated PANiCNQ was the first to have a strongly magnetic strength; as it was directly capable of ''"pick[ing] up iron filings"'' (and worked at room temperature); which was the test that other researchers were not able to pass.<ref name="Matthew Killeya (30 August 2004)."/>

[[File:Indus valley civilisation distillation.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;font-size:80%;">Distillation apparatus from ancient Pakistan for producing essential oils (without Avicenna's refrigerated coil).</div>]]
*'''Distillation'''—Abu Ali al-Ḥusayn ibn Abd Allah ibn al-Ḥasan ibn Ali ibn Sina (Avicenna; 980—1037) was the first to invent the refrigerated coil,<ref name="Komeh-Nkrumah (September 2nd, 2014).">Komeh-Nkrumah (September 2nd, 2014). ''[https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/d9/34/16/2eaa5e489a9ca0/US8821948.pdf THERAPEUTIC, BIO-AFFECTING AND BODY TREATING COMPOSITION]''. United States Patent. Patent No.: US 8,821,948 B2. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190311031139/https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/d9/34/16/2eaa5e489a9ca0/US8821948.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 11th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Myers2003">Richard Myers (2003). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oS50J3-IfZsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Basics+of+Chemistry&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiBnIOdhvngAhX4SBUIHWf2BvoQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Basics%20of%20Chemistry&f=false The Basics of Chemistry]''. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-313-3166</ref><ref name="Edwards2015">Victoria H. Edwards (31 August 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OoyECgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10&dq=avicenna+refrigerated+coil&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwir3Mi7hvngAhX9UBUIHbanAacQ6AEISjAG#v=onepage&q=avicenna%20refrigerated%20coil&f=false The Aromatherapy Companion: Medicinal Uses/Ayurvedic Healing/Body-Care Blends/Perfumes & Scents/Emotional Health & Well-Being]''. Storey Publishing, LLC. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-1-61212-786-6.</ref> which cooled down vapours,<ref name="Madoc Arundel, Christopher Miller (September 2014)."/> condensing them into liquid.<ref name="Maryam Khoubnasabjafari, Eliza Sadeghifar, Majid Khalili, Jalil Vaez-Gharamaleki, Abolghasem Jouyban (2011).">Maryam Khoubnasabjafari, Eliza Sadeghifar, Majid Khalili, Jalil Vaez-Gharamaleki, Abolghasem Jouyban (2011). ''[http://www.scielo.org.co/pdf/rccqf/v40n2/v40n2a07.pdf Contribution of Iranian chemists in research activities, on the occasion of the International Year of Chemistry]''. Rev. Colomb. Cienc. Quím. Farm. Vol. 40 (2). pg. 240-260, 2011. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190311031237/http://www.scielo.org.co/pdf/rccqf/v40n2/v40n2a07.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 11th, 2019.</ref> He used this invention of his to extract the first essential oil from roses,<ref name="Kaufmann2018">Cher Kaufmann (17 April 2018). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ezBUDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT52&dq=avicenna+refrigerated+coil&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwir3Mi7hvngAhX9UBUIHbanAacQ6AEINTAC#v=onepage&q=avicenna%20refrigerated%20coil&f=false Nature's Essential Oils: Aromatic Alchemy for Well-Being (Countryman Know How)]''. Countryman Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-58157-460-9.</ref> which were used to make perfume. Indeed, ''"[t]his is a chilled coil within which the steamed distillate is condensed back into liquid without having to wait for the natural cooling process to take place"''.<ref name="Madoc Arundel, Christopher Miller (September 2014).">Madoc Arundel, Christopher Miller (September 2014). ''[http://brewers.aethelmearc.org/MedievalRum.pdf Rum as a Medieval European Possibility]''.  Society for Creative Anachronism, Inc. (SCA) and the American Homebrewers' Association. pg. 1-17. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190311030450/http://brewers.aethelmearc.org/MedievalRum.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 11th, 2019.</ref> Distillation however, was first invented in the Indus Valley (c. 7000 BC—c. 1300 BC).<ref name="VV.2016">AA. VV. (11 April 2016). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pmbyCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2&dq=Paolo+Rovesti+indus&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiTrJ-qmf3gAhXFSRUIHWnUCzcQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Paolo%20Rovesti%20indus&f=false Nitrogeno]''. Fontana Editore. pp. 2. ISBN 978-88-98750-26-9.</ref>
**There is evidence which proves that essential oil production was known to the Indus Valley Civilisation, the people of whom's descendants inhabit modern day Pakistan (indeed one of the theories is that some of these people migrated to the south of India, and indeed there is a genetic connection through the LM-20 haplogroup gene which shows modern day Pakistanis are more related to southern Dravidian Indians than northern Gangetic Indians<ref name="russianlm20">''[http://gentis.ru/info/ydna-tutorial/hg-l/m20 Описание гаплогруппы L-M20 (Description of haplogroup L-M20)]''. Gentis (История Вашего Рода, записанная в ДНК). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190312184932/http://gentis.ru/info/ydna-tutorial/hg-l/m20 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 12th, 2019.</ref>). The Indus Valley Civilisation however didn't use a refrigerated coil (see picture); they used the system shown adjacent.
**The Indus Valley distillation apparatus was discovered in 1975 by Paolo Rovesti (1902—1983<ref name="RhindPirie2012">Jennifer Peace Rhind; David Pirie (2012). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=70wSBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA14&dq=Paolo+Rovesti+indus&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiTrJ-qmf3gAhXFSRUIHWnUCzcQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=Paolo%20Rovesti%20indus&f=false Essential Oils: A Handbook for Aromatherapy Practice]''. Singing Dragon. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-84819-089-4.</ref>). He discovered it in the museum of Taxila, and noted that it was a ''"perfectly preserved distillation apparatus made of terracotta"'' where the ''"presence of perfume containers also exhibited in the museum dating from the same period, about 3000 BC, confirmed its use for the preparation of aromatic oils"''.<ref name="Lawless2012">Julia Lawless (22 November 2012). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xIPNY-6u4h8C&pg=PA14&dq=avicenna+refrigerated+coil&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwir3Mi7hvngAhX9UBUIHbanAacQ6AEIPzAE#v=onepage&q=avicenna%20refrigerated%20coil&f=false Encyclopedia of Essential Oils: The complete guide to the use of aromatic oils in aromatherapy, herbalism, health and well-being]''. (Text Only). HarperCollins Publishers. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-00-740521-3.</ref> A second distillation apparatus was also discovered in Afghanistan dated to 2,000 BC.<ref name="ormus">''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sj_bBoDtP9YC&pg=PA116&dq=Paolo+Rovesti+indus&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiTrJ-qmf3gAhXFSRUIHWnUCzcQ6AEINzAC#v=onepage&q=Paolo%20Rovesti%20indus&f=false ORMUS The Secret Alchemy of Mary Magdalene ~ Revealed ~ (Part A)]''. ORMUS® USA/Japan. December 2007. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-9793737-0-1.</ref> Distillation was previously thought to have been no older than a 1,000 years old.<ref name="ormus"/>

[[File:1799386198001 5797577503001 2219736993001-vs.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:60%;">Gold-assaying using lydite rock.</div>]]
*'''Touchstone'''—An assaying tool to identify the purity levels of metals such as gold are known as touchstones, which consist of a stone of black siliceous schist (a type of lydite rock).<ref name="Kenny2011"/><ref name="Cropley2019"/> They are rubbed against objects and then the markings are compared to known pure gold samples.<ref name="Kenny2011"/><ref name="Cropley2019"/>  
**Touchstones were first used in the Indus Valley in 3,500 BC.<ref name="Cropley2019">David H. Cropley (16 February 2019). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AHyGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA29&dq=touchstones+indus+valley&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjvrZqAn7riAhXiRhUIHfmjDvwQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=touchstones%20indus%20valley&f=false Homo Problematis Solvendis–Problem-solving Man: A History of Human Creativity]''. Springer. p. 29. ISBN 9789811331015.</ref> Touchstones were also used in ancient Greece<ref name="Cropley2019"/> with the earliest archeological evidence for their use in Europe being in the 8th century BC (800 BC—701 BC).<ref name="Kenny2011">Shannon L. Kenny (12 April 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TBGzEK4laJ0C&pg=PA264&dq=touchstones+indus+valley&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjvrZqAn7riAhXiRhUIHfmjDvwQ6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=touchstones%20indus%20valley&f=false Gold: A Cultural Encyclopedia: A Cultural Encyclopedia]''. ABC-CLIO. p. 264-265. ISBN 978-0-313-38431-8.</ref> The earliest reference in China was in 1387.<ref name="Kenny2011"/>
**Evidence from an ancient Harappan jewellers home found in modern day India, in Banawali, in the Hissar district in Haryana (historically a part of the ancient lands of the Punjab until 1966, when it was forcibly renamed to Haryana by the Indian government<ref name="Bhargava2005">S. C. Bhatt, Gopal K. Bhargava (2005). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CP-kKXZ8rTIC&pg=PA93&dq=haryana+carved+1966&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjkr8qn3b3iAhWRQhUIHai9DjsQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=haryana%20carved%201966&f=false  Land and people of Indian states and union territories: (in 36 volumes)]''. 9. Haryana. Gyan Publishing House. p. 93. ISBN 978-81-7835-365-4.</ref>).<ref name="Singh20082">Upinder Singh (2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA153&dq=Touchstone:+In+Banawali&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjC053TobriAhVcThUIHaOWClkQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=Touchstone%3A%20In%20Banawali&f=false A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century]''. Pearson Education India. pp. 152–153. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0.</ref> The home was filled with a large number of beads of gold, lapis lazuli and carnelian and tiny weights.<ref name="Singh20082"/> The touchstone itself showed markings of streaks of gold (indicating that it was indeed used for assaying).<ref name="Singh20082"/><ref name="Lal1997">Braj Basi Lal (1 January 1997). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3_1tAAAAMAAJ&dq=Touchstone%3A+In+Banawali&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=Touchstone The earliest civilization of South Asia: rise, maturity, and decline]''. Aryan Books International. p. 127. ISBN 978-81-7305-107-4.</ref><ref name="Osada2006">Toshiki Osada (2006). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O-ZtAAAAMAAJ&q=Touchstone:+In+Banawali&dq=Touchstone:+In+Banawali&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjC053TobriAhVcThUIHaOWClkQ6AEIUzAI Indus civilization: text & context]''. Manohar Publishers & Distributors. pp. 22–23. ISBN 978-81-7304-682-7.</ref>

[[File:1-s2.0-S0048969718327104-ga1 lrg.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;font-size:90%;">Xanthated-Arsenic capture generation. Removing arsenic from water was difficult and expensive. However it can now very cheaply be done with modified watermelon rind.</div>]]
*'''Xanthated Salt-Arsenic Capture'''—In 2018, a major scientific breakthrough was made when scientists at the ''"University of Agriculture, Faisalabad"'' were the first to develop a chemical modification to watermelon rind which resulted in the organic structure being fully capable of binding to arsenic.<ref name="News Desk (August 26th, 2018).">News Desk (August 26th, 2018). ''[https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2018/08/26/cheap-arsenic-water-filter-developed-by-pakistani-scientists-using-watermelon-rind/ Cheap arsenic water filter developed by Pakistani scientists using watermelon rind]''. Pakistan Today. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014111335/https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2018/08/26/cheap-arsenic-water-filter-developed-by-pakistani-scientists-using-watermelon-rind/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref> They developed this technology by heating, drying, and oven-firing the rind, crushing it into a fine powder, reacting it with sulfuric acid (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>) which causes it's biopolymer rings to open, exposing many important reactive functional groups.<ref name="News Desk (August 26th, 2018)."/> They then bind these exposed functional groups to carbon disulfide (CS<sub>2</sub>)—sulfide uniquely binds to arsenic—rendering the rind capable of netting arsenic,<ref name="News Desk (August 26th, 2018)."/> with a success rate of 94%—100%.<ref name="ShakoorNiazi2018">Shakoor, Muhammad Bilal; Niazi, Nabeel Khan; Bibi, Irshad; Shahid, Muhammad; Sharif, Fakhra; Bashir, Safdar; Shaheen, Sabry M.; Wang, Hailong; Tsang, Daniel C.W.; Ok, Yong Sik; Rinklebe, Jörg (2018). ''"[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718327104?via%3Dihub Arsenic removal by natural and chemically modified water melon rind in aqueous solutions and groundwater]"''. Science of The Total Environment. 645: 1444–1455. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.218. ISSN 0048-9697.</ref> It works especially well for Arsenic with a valency of III.<ref name="ShakoorNiazi2018"/>
**The idea was first formulated in 2014 by Nabeel Khan Niazi (19??—Present), who's idea was subsequently funded by ''"Grand Challenges Canada"''.<ref name="Inga Vesper (15th August, 2018).">Inga Vesper (15th August, 2018). ''[https://www.scidev.net/asia-pacific/innovation/news/watermelon-rind-cheaply-filters-arsenic-in-groundwater.html Watermelon rind cheaply filters arsenic in groundwater]''. Sci Dev Net. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014113646/https://www.scidev.net/asia-pacific/innovation/news/watermelon-rind-cheaply-filters-arsenic-in-groundwater.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref> The use of biological xanthates is not a novel idea, however, what makes this particularly groundbreaking are three things; the first being the successful integration of watermelon-rind with xanthate salts (whereas prior to this scientists had only used groundnut shell, mango leaf, rice husk and sugarcane bagasse).<ref name="Inga Vesper (15th August, 2018)."/> The second is it's effectiveness (extremely high; whereas previous attempts using biological xanthates met with very ''"limited success"'').<ref name="Inga Vesper (15th August, 2018)."/> Lastly, and most importantly, Niazi's filter was the first biological xanthate to have been capable of removing arsenic whereas before it had never been achieved.<ref name="Inga Vesper (15th August, 2018)."/>
**The importance of the invention is highlighted by the fact that arsenic poisoning affects 150 million people across 50 countries, with 43,000 people dying every year from unsanitized water polluted with the metal.<ref name="Inga Vesper (15th August, 2018)."/> According to ''"SciDev'', ''"[t]he most affected countries are Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan though arsenic pollution is also present in China, parts of Europe and the Americas"''.<ref name="Inga Vesper (15th August, 2018)."/> The filter developed by these researchers is able to process 20,000 mls of water per day (approximately 834 mls per hour), and can be used for between 6 to 8 months before needing to be replaced.<ref name="Inga Vesper (15th August, 2018)."/> Each filter costs $32 dollars to purchase.<ref name="Inga Vesper (15th August, 2018)."/>

*'''Variable Volume of Distribution Model'''—Sarfaraz K. Niazi (1949—Present) is a Pakistani-American who in 1976<ref name="Niazi1976">Niazi, Sarfaraz (1976). ''[https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022354915406495 Volume of Distribution as a Function of Time]''. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 65 (3): 452–454. doi:10.1002/jps.2600650339. ISSN 0022-3549.</ref> developed the  ''"variable...volume of distribution model for sum of exponential functions based on conservation of mass"''.<ref name="JanigroWesolowski2016">Janigro, Damir; Wesolowski, Carl A.; Wesolowski, Michal J.; Babyn, Paul S.; Wanasundara, Surajith N. (2016). ''[https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0158798 Time Varying Apparent Volume of Distribution and Drug Half-Lives Following Intravenous Bolus Injections]''. PLOS ONE. 11 (7): e0158798. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0158798. ISSN 1932-6203.</ref> This variable volume model implies an explicit relationship between redistribution and the rate of volume of drug distribution expansion in time.<ref name="JanigroWesolowski2016"/> In simple terms his model calculates when the drug volume reaches a particular size relative to a drugs volume of distribution inside the body.<ref name="JanigroWesolowski2016"/> 
**His model is able to provide new information about time based tissue drug effects for tissue metabolism and/or eliminations.<ref name="JanigroWesolowski2016"/>
</div>
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===Computing (4)===
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete.''
[[File:Human-bionic-chip.jpg|thumb|left|140px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">The first neurochip.</div>]]
:::::::*'''[[Pakistani Brain (IBM MS-DOS PC Computer Virus)|PC Virus]]''' and '''Stealth Virus'''—Brain (''"Pakistani Brain"''), was the very first PC computer virus,<ref name="ChenWang2015">Guanrong Chen; Xiaofan Wang; Xiang Li (29 June 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fI8bCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA216&dq=Pakistani+Brain+virus+infected+,000&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjS7KzB4IfXAhVHCcAKHf9DB7MQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=Pakistani%20Brain%20virus%20infected%20%2C000&f=false Fundamentals of Complex Networks: Models, Structures and Dynamics]''. John Wiley & Sons. p. 216. ISBN 978-1-118-71811-7.</ref><ref name="John Leyden (19th January 2006).">John Leyden (19th January 2006). ''[http://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/01/19/pc_virus_at_20/ PC virus celebrates 20th birthday]''. The Register. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20170519211943/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/01/19/pc_virus_at_20/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 19th, 2017.</ref><ref group="n.">After Brain, a multitude of other viruses were created, which chiefly included viruses such as Jerusalem, Miami, Alameda, Cascade, and Lehigh.
#Peter H. Gregory (9 May 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U9diTlQ4erMC&pg=PT217&dq=computer+Brain+virus&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjAvc_Z4_zTAhXnIJoKHSuXA5sQ6AEIQTAF#v=onepage&q=computer%20Brain%20virus&f=false Computer Viruses For Dummies]''. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 217. ISBN 978-1-118-08547-9.</ref> and the first stealth virus in history.<ref name="E.2008">Adomi, Esharenana E. (30 April 2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZwaZhCqbEAC&pg=PT192&dq=Basit+Farooq+Alvi+and+Amjad+Farooq+Alvi&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiu3qqGzYfXAhXJPBoKHS0UDqk4ChDoAQhHMAU#v=onepage&q=Basit%20Farooq%20Alvi%20and%20Amjad%20Farooq%20Alvi&f=false Security and Software for Cybercafes]''. IGI Global. p. 192. ISBN 978-1-59904-905-2.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' The Brain virus was reported in 1990 as comprising around 7 per cent of all reported infection incidents. The virus was also the first case of limited camouflage being employed. When the virus was active in memory no alteration of the boot sector (from its standard value) could be detected.
#David Ferbrache (6 December 2012). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_VLmBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11&dq=first+computer+virus&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiJ3Ku74fzTAhWGDpoKHWzhA8cQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=first%20computer%20virus&f=false A Pathology of Computer Viruses]''. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-4471-1774-2.
</ref> It was created in Lahore, Pakistan, and was first formulated in 1984 and released in September 1986.<ref name="Mikko Hypponen (9th March 2011).">Mikko Hypponen (9th March 2011). ''[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lnedOWfPKT0 Brain: Searching for the first PC virus in Pakistan]''. YouTube (F-Secure). Retrieved May 19th, 2017.</ref> It was spread using bootleg (pirated) copies of American software (such as ''"Lotus 1-2-3"'').<ref name="Ritstein1992">Charles Ritstein (1 January 1992). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iXBXgPqwkJIC&pg=PA8&dq=computer+Brain+virus&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjAvc_Z4_zTAhXnIJoKHSuXA5sQ6AEIMTAC#v=onepage&q=computer%20Brain%20virus&f=false Executive Guide to Computer Viruses]''. DIANE Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-56806-251-8.</ref> The virus was created by two 19 year old brothers,<ref name="E.2008">Adomi, Esharenana E. (30 April 2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZwaZhCqbEAC&pg=PT192&dq=Basit+Farooq+Alvi+and+Amjad+Farooq+Alvi&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiu3qqGzYfXAhXJPBoKHS0UDqk4ChDoAQhHMAU#v=onepage&q=Basit%20Farooq%20Alvi%20and%20Amjad%20Farooq%20Alvi&f=false Security and Software for Cybercafes]''. IGI Global. p. 192. ISBN 978-1-59904-905-2.</ref>—Basit and Amjad Farooq Alvi<ref name="Gregory2011">Peter H. Gregory (9 May 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U9diTlQ4erMC&pg=PT216&dq=Basit+Farooq+Alvi+and+Amjad+Farooq+Alvi&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjIgpfkzIfXAhXEXRoKHTOcALIQ6AEILjAB#v=onepage&q=Basit%20Farooq%20Alvi%20and%20Amjad%20Farooq%20Alvi&f=false Computer Viruses For Dummies]''. John Wiley & Sons. p. 216. ISBN 978-1-118-08547-9.</ref>—who became increasingly frustrated that their own software was also getting pirated.<ref name="Moore2014">Robert Moore (25 September 2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fyqgBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA39&dq=computer+Brain+virus&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjAvc_Z4_zTAhXnIJoKHSuXA5sQ6AEIWTAJ#v=onepage&q=computer%20Brain%20virus&f=false Cybercrime: Investigating High-Technology Computer Crime]''. Routledge. pp. 39. ISBN 978-1-317-52297-3.</ref><ref name="Schmalleger2007">Frank Schmalleger (2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=davmFZCRo5oC&q=Pakistani+Brain+virus+infected+,000&dq=Pakistani+Brain+virus+infected+,000&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjS7KzB4IfXAhVHCcAKHf9DB7MQ6AEIWzAJ Criminal justice today: an introductory text for the twenty-first century]''. Prentice Hall. p. 708. ISBN 978-0-13-171965-1.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' Computer viruses are a special concern of computer users everywhere. Computer viruses were first brought to public attention in 1988, when the Pakistani virus (or Pakistani brain virus) became widespread in personal and office computers across the United States. The Paksitani virus was created by Amjad Farooq Alvi and his brother, Basit Farooq Alvi, two cut-rate computer sofr-ware dealers in Lahore, Pakistan. The Alvi brothers made copies of costly software products and were dealers in Lahore, Pakistan. The Alvi brothers made copies of costly software products and sold them at low prices, mostly to Western shoppers looking for a bargain. Motivated by convoluted logic, the brothers hid a virus on each disk they sold to punish buyers for seeking to evade copyright law.
#Frank Schmalleger (2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=davmFZCRo5oC&q=Pakistani+Brain+virus+infected+,000&dq=Pakistani+Brain+virus+infected+,000&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjS7KzB4IfXAhVHCcAKHf9DB7MQ6AEIWzAJ Criminal justice today: an introductory text for the twenty-first century]''. Prentice Hall. p. 708. ISBN 978-0-13-171965-1.
</ref> The creators wanted to punish the pirates and so invented the virus.<ref name="Ritstein1992"/>

:::::::*'''Neurochip'''—Also known as the ''Brain Cell Silicon Chip'' or the ''Bionic Chip'', the nuerochip was first invented by Naweed Syed (c. 1957—Present) in 2010.<ref name="Carolyn Abraham (August 9th, 2010).">Carolyn Abraham (August 9th, 2010). ''[https://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/health-and-fitness/calgary-scientists-to-create-human-neurochip/article1368807/ Calgary scientists to create human 'neurochip']''. The Globe and Mail. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190623225901/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/health-and-fitness/calgary-scientists-to-create-human-neurochip/article1368807/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved June 23rd, 2019.</ref><ref name="universityofcalgary">''[https://www.ucalgary.ca/news/uofcpublications/RIA_fall08/RIA-Syed Naweed Syed]''. University of Calgary News. University of Calgary. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190623230151/https://www.ucalgary.ca/news/uofcpublications/RIA_fall08/RIA-Syed WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved June 24th, 2019.</ref> In 2004 he had already successfully achieved the same feat by using an animal brain cell (specifically that of a snail, which are 4—10 times as large as human brain cells).<ref name="Carolyn Abraham (August 9th, 2010)."/> The development has been considered monumental since it's applications are wide ranging; ''"raising the possibility of neurochip implants that can operate artificial limbs, help restore sight or language after a stroke, or repair neurons that malfunction in a wide range of brain disorders, from Parkinson's disease to Alzheimer's"''.<ref name="Carolyn Abraham (August 9th, 2010)."/> In 2019, it was reported that the first human clinical trials using the chip were scheduled later that year.<ref name="Mehak Tariq (March 30th, 2019).">Mehak Tariq (March 30th, 2019). ''[https://techobserver.net/2019/03/pakistani-scientist-brain-chip-trails/ Pakistani scientist is just few steps away from introducing brain-chip trails on Humans]''. Tech Observer. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190623231350/https://techobserver.net/2019/03/pakistani-scientist-brain-chip-trails/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved June 24th, 2019.</ref>

[[File:Smart eye helmet.jpg|thumb|right|180px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;font-size:80%;">Smart Eye Helmet.</div>]]
*'''Smart (Mining) Helmet'''—In 2016, Ali Gul (c. 1995—Present)—from the Balochistan province of Pakistan—became the first person to invent the smart helmet.<ref name="Naimat Khan (25th July 2019).">Naimat Khan (25th July 2019). ''[https://www.arabnews.pk/node/1530301/pakistan In province known for deadly mining accidents, a Pakistani man invents anti-risk helmet]''. Arab News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191007021428/https://www.arabnews.pk/node/1530301/pakistan WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 7th, 2019.</ref> It contains ''"sensors to monitor mine conditions, the presence of toxic gases, explosion risks, and the location and health vitals of miners working in a particular mine"'' as well as being capable of predicting ''"danger through the use of artificial intelligence (AI)"'' embedded software.<ref name="Naimat Khan (25th July 2019)."/><ref name="Sana Jamal (July 28th, 2019)."/> This explains the price tag of the helmet at $135 dollars (which according to safety industrial experts is reasonable given it's advanced capabilities).<ref name="Sana Jamal (July 28th, 2019)."/>
**Gul set to work on the design of the helmet when he had heard that his brother had passed out inside a mine and almost died as a result of being unable to detect toxic vapours emanating from trapped gases buried deep within the ground.<ref name="Naimat Khan (25th July 2019)."/> After discovering how many men and women die (or obtain injuries) every year in these pits, he became determined to resolve the issue and mitigate these unnecessary deaths (and injuries).<ref name="Naimat Khan (25th July 2019)."/> 
***Balochistan's coal industries employ a staggering 300,000 miners despite its considerably small population.<ref name="Naimat Khan (25th July 2019)."/> Some 120<ref name="Naimat Khan (25th July 2019)."/>—200<ref name="Sana Jamal (July 28th, 2019).">Sana Jamal (July 28th, 2019). ''[https://gulfnews.com/world/asia/pakistan/there-is-a-light-beyond-the-tunnel-for-coal-miners-1.65493004 There is a light beyond the tunnel for coal miners]''. Gulf News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191007021603/https://gulfnews.com/world/asia/pakistan/there-is-a-light-beyond-the-tunnel-for-coal-miners-1.65493004 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 7th, 2019.</ref> miners die in accidents every year, because the industry does not adequately follow safety standards and laws set by the state.<ref name="Naimat Khan (25th July 2019)."/> The mining industry is only set to grow further. A single goldmine in Pakistan for example has been found to contain at least $500 billion dollars worth of pure gold.<ref name="Syed Fazl-e-Haider (December 6th, 2014).">Syed Fazl-e-Haider (December 6th, 2014). ''[https://www.thenational.ae/business/pakistan-s-500bn-gold-mine-kept-under-wraps-1.606927 Pakistan’s $500bn gold mine kept under wraps]''. The National. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191008025451/https://www.thenational.ae/business/pakistan-s-500bn-gold-mine-kept-under-wraps-1.606927 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 8th, 2019.</ref>
**The invention initially started out as a project in 2016 when Gul attended the ''"University of Information Technology, Engineering and Management Sciences"'' (BUITEMS) in Balochistan. As a result of the value of his invention the ''"High Education Commission (HEC)"'' awarded him Rs. 14,000,000 rupees (approximately $100,000 dollars when converted to USD) to further develop the helmet's technology.<ref name="Sana Jamal (July 28th, 2019)."/><ref name="Faisal Saeed (July 22nd, 2019).">Faisal Saeed (July 22nd, 2019). ''[https://www.techjuice.pk/a-balochi-student-raises-rs-14-million-from-hec-for-his-eye-smart-helmet-to-minimize-risks-in-mining/ A Baloch student raises Rs. 14 million from HEC for his ‘Eye Smart Helmet’ to minimize risks in mining]''. Tech Juice. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191007021642/https://www.techjuice.pk/a-balochi-student-raises-rs-14-million-from-hec-for-his-eye-smart-helmet-to-minimize-risks-in-mining/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 7th, 2019.</ref>
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<!-------------MOBILE VERSION ---------------------->
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'''[[#Astronomy & Universe (4)|Astronomy]]''' •
'''[[#Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)|Agriculture, Food & Beverage]]''' •
'''[[#Biology (2)|Biology]]''' (''[[#Paleontology (10)|Paleontology]]'') •
'''[[#Chemistry (5)|Chemistry]]''' •
'''[[#Computing (4)|Computing]]''' (''[[#Video-gaming (1)|Video-gaming]] • [[#Board Games (1)|Board-games]]'') •
'''[[#Mathematics (3)|Mathematics]]''' •
'''[[#Medicines (1)|Medicine]]''' (''[[#Disease Eradication (1)|Disease Eradication]]'' • ''[[#Genetics & Disease (5)|Genetics & Disease]]'' • ''[[#Medical Instruments (6)|Instruments]]'') •
'''[[#Physics (5)|Physics]]''' •
'''Engineering''' (''[[#Naval Engineering (1)|Naval]]'' • ''[[#Mechanical Engineering (7)|Mechanical]]'' • ''[[#Handtool Engineering (3)|Handtool]]'' • ''[[#Textile Engineering (3)|Textile]]'' (''[[#Clothing (2)|Clothing]]'') • ''[[#Architectural Engineering (4)|Architectural]]'') •
'''[[#Sport & Recreation (2)|Sport & Recreation]]''' •
'''[[#Disputed (2)|Disputed]]''' •
[[#Further Reading|Further Reading]] •
[[#Sources|Sources]] •
(''[[#Footnotes|Footnotes]]'' • ''[[#References|References]]'' • ''[[#Acknowledgements|Acknowledgements]]'') •
[[#External Links|External Links]] •
'''''Total Inventions & Discoveries Listed: 77'''''
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete.''
[[File:Human-bionic-chip.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">The first neurochip.</div>]]
*'''[[Pakistani Brain (IBM MS-DOS PC Computer Virus)|PC Virus]]''' and '''Stealth Virus'''—Brain (''"Pakistani Brain"''), was the very first PC computer virus,<ref name="ChenWang2015">Guanrong Chen; Xiaofan Wang; Xiang Li (29 June 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fI8bCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA216&dq=Pakistani+Brain+virus+infected+,000&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjS7KzB4IfXAhVHCcAKHf9DB7MQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=Pakistani%20Brain%20virus%20infected%20%2C000&f=false Fundamentals of Complex Networks: Models, Structures and Dynamics]''. John Wiley & Sons. p. 216. ISBN 978-1-118-71811-7.</ref><ref name="John Leyden (19th January 2006).">John Leyden (19th January 2006). ''[http://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/01/19/pc_virus_at_20/ PC virus celebrates 20th birthday]''. The Register. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20170519211943/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/01/19/pc_virus_at_20/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 19th, 2017.</ref><ref group="n.">After Brain, a multitude of other viruses were created, which chiefly included viruses such as Jerusalem, Miami, Alameda, Cascade, and Lehigh.
#Peter H. Gregory (9 May 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U9diTlQ4erMC&pg=PT217&dq=computer+Brain+virus&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjAvc_Z4_zTAhXnIJoKHSuXA5sQ6AEIQTAF#v=onepage&q=computer%20Brain%20virus&f=false Computer Viruses For Dummies]''. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 217. ISBN 978-1-118-08547-9.</ref> and the first stealth virus in history.<ref name="E.2008">Adomi, Esharenana E. (30 April 2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZwaZhCqbEAC&pg=PT192&dq=Basit+Farooq+Alvi+and+Amjad+Farooq+Alvi&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiu3qqGzYfXAhXJPBoKHS0UDqk4ChDoAQhHMAU#v=onepage&q=Basit%20Farooq%20Alvi%20and%20Amjad%20Farooq%20Alvi&f=false Security and Software for Cybercafes]''. IGI Global. p. 192. ISBN 978-1-59904-905-2.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' The Brain virus was reported in 1990 as comprising around 7 per cent of all reported infection incidents. The virus was also the first case of limited camouflage being employed. When the virus was active in memory no alteration of the boot sector (from its standard value) could be detected.
#David Ferbrache (6 December 2012). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_VLmBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11&dq=first+computer+virus&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiJ3Ku74fzTAhWGDpoKHWzhA8cQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=first%20computer%20virus&f=false A Pathology of Computer Viruses]''. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-4471-1774-2.
</ref> It was created in Lahore, Pakistan, and was first formulated in 1984 and released in September 1986.<ref name="Mikko Hypponen (9th March 2011).">Mikko Hypponen (9th March 2011). ''[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lnedOWfPKT0 Brain: Searching for the first PC virus in Pakistan]''. YouTube (F-Secure). Retrieved May 19th, 2017.</ref> It was spread using bootleg (pirated) copies of American software (such as ''"Lotus 1-2-3"'').<ref name="Ritstein1992">Charles Ritstein (1 January 1992). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iXBXgPqwkJIC&pg=PA8&dq=computer+Brain+virus&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjAvc_Z4_zTAhXnIJoKHSuXA5sQ6AEIMTAC#v=onepage&q=computer%20Brain%20virus&f=false Executive Guide to Computer Viruses]''. DIANE Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-56806-251-8.</ref> The virus was created by two 19 year old brothers,<ref name="E.2008">Adomi, Esharenana E. (30 April 2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZwaZhCqbEAC&pg=PT192&dq=Basit+Farooq+Alvi+and+Amjad+Farooq+Alvi&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiu3qqGzYfXAhXJPBoKHS0UDqk4ChDoAQhHMAU#v=onepage&q=Basit%20Farooq%20Alvi%20and%20Amjad%20Farooq%20Alvi&f=false Security and Software for Cybercafes]''. IGI Global. p. 192. ISBN 978-1-59904-905-2.</ref>—Basit and Amjad Farooq Alvi<ref name="Gregory2011">Peter H. Gregory (9 May 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U9diTlQ4erMC&pg=PT216&dq=Basit+Farooq+Alvi+and+Amjad+Farooq+Alvi&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjIgpfkzIfXAhXEXRoKHTOcALIQ6AEILjAB#v=onepage&q=Basit%20Farooq%20Alvi%20and%20Amjad%20Farooq%20Alvi&f=false Computer Viruses For Dummies]''. John Wiley & Sons. p. 216. ISBN 978-1-118-08547-9.</ref>—who became increasingly frustrated that their own software was also getting pirated.<ref name="Moore2014">Robert Moore (25 September 2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fyqgBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA39&dq=computer+Brain+virus&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjAvc_Z4_zTAhXnIJoKHSuXA5sQ6AEIWTAJ#v=onepage&q=computer%20Brain%20virus&f=false Cybercrime: Investigating High-Technology Computer Crime]''. Routledge. pp. 39. ISBN 978-1-317-52297-3.</ref><ref name="Schmalleger2007">Frank Schmalleger (2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=davmFZCRo5oC&q=Pakistani+Brain+virus+infected+,000&dq=Pakistani+Brain+virus+infected+,000&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjS7KzB4IfXAhVHCcAKHf9DB7MQ6AEIWzAJ Criminal justice today: an introductory text for the twenty-first century]''. Prentice Hall. p. 708. ISBN 978-0-13-171965-1.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' Computer viruses are a special concern of computer users everywhere. Computer viruses were first brought to public attention in 1988, when the Pakistani virus (or Pakistani brain virus) became widespread in personal and office computers across the United States. The Paksitani virus was created by Amjad Farooq Alvi and his brother, Basit Farooq Alvi, two cut-rate computer sofr-ware dealers in Lahore, Pakistan. The Alvi brothers made copies of costly software products and were dealers in Lahore, Pakistan. The Alvi brothers made copies of costly software products and sold them at low prices, mostly to Western shoppers looking for a bargain. Motivated by convoluted logic, the brothers hid a virus on each disk they sold to punish buyers for seeking to evade copyright law.
#Frank Schmalleger (2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=davmFZCRo5oC&q=Pakistani+Brain+virus+infected+,000&dq=Pakistani+Brain+virus+infected+,000&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjS7KzB4IfXAhVHCcAKHf9DB7MQ6AEIWzAJ Criminal justice today: an introductory text for the twenty-first century]''. Prentice Hall. p. 708. ISBN 978-0-13-171965-1.
</ref> The creators wanted to punish the pirates and so invented the virus.<ref name="Ritstein1992"/>

*'''Neurochip'''—Also known as the ''Brain Cell Silicon Chip'' or the ''Bionic Chip'', the nuerochip was first invented by Naweed Syed (c. 1957—Present) in 2010.<ref name="Carolyn Abraham (August 9th, 2010).">Carolyn Abraham (August 9th, 2010). ''[https://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/health-and-fitness/calgary-scientists-to-create-human-neurochip/article1368807/ Calgary scientists to create human 'neurochip']''. The Globe and Mail. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190623225901/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/health-and-fitness/calgary-scientists-to-create-human-neurochip/article1368807/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved June 23rd, 2019.</ref><ref name="universityofcalgary">''[https://www.ucalgary.ca/news/uofcpublications/RIA_fall08/RIA-Syed Naweed Syed]''. University of Calgary News. University of Calgary. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190623230151/https://www.ucalgary.ca/news/uofcpublications/RIA_fall08/RIA-Syed WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved June 24th, 2019.</ref> In 2004 he had already successfully achieved the same feat by using an animal brain cell (specifically that of a snail, which are 4—10 times as large as human brain cells).<ref name="Carolyn Abraham (August 9th, 2010)."/> The development has been considered monumental since it's applications are wide ranging; ''"raising the possibility of neurochip implants that can operate artificial limbs, help restore sight or language after a stroke, or repair neurons that malfunction in a wide range of brain disorders, from Parkinson's disease to Alzheimer's"''.<ref name="Carolyn Abraham (August 9th, 2010)."/> In 2019, it was reported that the first human clinical trials using the chip were scheduled later that year.<ref name="Mehak Tariq (March 30th, 2019).">Mehak Tariq (March 30th, 2019). ''[https://techobserver.net/2019/03/pakistani-scientist-brain-chip-trails/ Pakistani scientist is just few steps away from introducing brain-chip trails on Humans]''. Tech Observer. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190623231350/https://techobserver.net/2019/03/pakistani-scientist-brain-chip-trails/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved June 24th, 2019.</ref>

[[File:Smart eye helmet.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;font-size:80%;">Smart Eye Helmet.</div>]]
*'''Smart (Mining) Helmet'''—In 2016, Ali Gul (c. 1995—Present)—from the Balochistan province of Pakistan—became the first person to invent the smart helmet.<ref name="Naimat Khan (25th July 2019).">Naimat Khan (25th July 2019). ''[https://www.arabnews.pk/node/1530301/pakistan In province known for deadly mining accidents, a Pakistani man invents anti-risk helmet]''. Arab News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191007021428/https://www.arabnews.pk/node/1530301/pakistan WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 7th, 2019.</ref> It contains ''"sensors to monitor mine conditions, the presence of toxic gases, explosion risks, and the location and health vitals of miners working in a particular mine"'' as well as being capable of predicting ''"danger through the use of artificial intelligence (AI)"'' embedded software.<ref name="Naimat Khan (25th July 2019)."/><ref name="Sana Jamal (July 28th, 2019)."/> This explains the price tag of the helmet at $135 dollars (which according to safety industrial experts is reasonable given it's advanced capabilities).<ref name="Sana Jamal (July 28th, 2019)."/>
**Gul set to work on the design of the helmet when he had heard that his brother had passed out inside a mine and almost died as a result of being unable to detect toxic vapours emanating from trapped gases buried deep within the ground.<ref name="Naimat Khan (25th July 2019)."/> After discovering how many men and women die (or obtain injuries) every year in these pits, he became determined to resolve the issue and mitigate these unnecessary deaths (and injuries).<ref name="Naimat Khan (25th July 2019)."/> 
***Balochistan's coal industries employ a staggering 300,000 miners despite its considerably small population.<ref name="Naimat Khan (25th July 2019)."/> Some 120<ref name="Naimat Khan (25th July 2019)."/>—200<ref name="Sana Jamal (July 28th, 2019).">Sana Jamal (July 28th, 2019). ''[https://gulfnews.com/world/asia/pakistan/there-is-a-light-beyond-the-tunnel-for-coal-miners-1.65493004 There is a light beyond the tunnel for coal miners]''. Gulf News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191007021603/https://gulfnews.com/world/asia/pakistan/there-is-a-light-beyond-the-tunnel-for-coal-miners-1.65493004 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 7th, 2019.</ref> miners die in accidents every year, because the industry does not adequately follow safety standards and laws set by the state.<ref name="Naimat Khan (25th July 2019)."/> The mining industry is only set to grow further. A single goldmine in Pakistan for example has been found to contain at least $500 billion dollars worth of pure gold.<ref name="Syed Fazl-e-Haider (December 6th, 2014).">Syed Fazl-e-Haider (December 6th, 2014). ''[https://www.thenational.ae/business/pakistan-s-500bn-gold-mine-kept-under-wraps-1.606927 Pakistan’s $500bn gold mine kept under wraps]''. The National. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191008025451/https://www.thenational.ae/business/pakistan-s-500bn-gold-mine-kept-under-wraps-1.606927 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 8th, 2019.</ref>
**The invention initially started out as a project in 2016 when Gul attended the ''"University of Information Technology, Engineering and Management Sciences"'' (BUITEMS) in Balochistan. As a result of the value of his invention the ''"High Education Commission (HEC)"'' awarded him Rs. 14,000,000 rupees (approximately $100,000 dollars when converted to USD) to further develop the helmet's technology.<ref name="Sana Jamal (July 28th, 2019)."/><ref name="Faisal Saeed (July 22nd, 2019).">Faisal Saeed (July 22nd, 2019). ''[https://www.techjuice.pk/a-balochi-student-raises-rs-14-million-from-hec-for-his-eye-smart-helmet-to-minimize-risks-in-mining/ A Baloch student raises Rs. 14 million from HEC for his ‘Eye Smart Helmet’ to minimize risks in mining]''. Tech Juice. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191007021642/https://www.techjuice.pk/a-balochi-student-raises-rs-14-million-from-hec-for-his-eye-smart-helmet-to-minimize-risks-in-mining/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 7th, 2019.</ref>
</div>
</div>

===Video-gaming (1)===
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[History of Muslims in the Video-Games Industry (1980—Present)]]'''''
[[File:1471372252-125974054.jpg|thumb|left|180px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">''"Bastion"'' (2011), an indie game, was the first game to use reactive/real-time narration, which was lauded as ''"groundbreaking"'' by critics. This unique feature help it sell millions of copies.</div>]]
:::::::::*'''Reactive Narration/Real-time<ref name="realtime">''[https://www.supergiantgames.com/blog/in-depth-writing-bastion/ In-Depth: Writing Bastion]''. October 26th, 2010. Supergiant Games. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015210806/https://www.supergiantgames.com/blog/in-depth-writing-bastion/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"Bastion uses real-time narration extensively. Its purpose is to deliver story and exposition, and to build atmosphere, investment, and immersion in close partnership with the gameplay."''.
#''[https://www.supergiantgames.com/blog/in-depth-writing-bastion/ In-Depth: Writing Bastion]''. October 26th, 2010. Supergiant Games. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015210806/https://www.supergiantgames.com/blog/in-depth-writing-bastion/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref> Narration'''—In 2011, Amir Rao (19??—Present), a Pakistani American,<ref name="Fahad Ahmad (February 9th, 2016).">Fahad Ahmad (February 9th, 2016). ''[https://nation.com.pk/10-Feb-2016/10-young-pakistan-entrepreneurs-who-deserve-appreciation 10 young Pakistan entrepreneurs who deserve appreciation]''. The Nation. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014052550/https://nation.com.pk/10-Feb-2016/10-young-pakistan-entrepreneurs-who-deserve-appreciation WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Mohammed Arifeen (October 9th, 2017).">Mohammed Arifeen (October 9th, 2017). ''[http://www.pakistaneconomist.com/2017/10/09/leading-10-young-pakistani-entrepreneurs-bring-name-fame-pakistan/ Leading 10 young Pakistani entrepreneurs bring name and fame for Pakistan]''. Pakistan Economist. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014054058/http://www.pakistaneconomist.com/2017/10/09/leading-10-young-pakistani-entrepreneurs-bring-name-fame-pakistan/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Admin (January 19th, 2017).">Admin (January 19th, 2017). ''[http://www.dashboardpk.com/the-young-entrepreneurs-of-pakistan/ The Young Entrepreneurs of Pakistan]''. Dashboard Pakistan News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014055226/http://www.dashboardpk.com/the-young-entrepreneurs-of-pakistan/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Admin (March 28th, 2018).">Admin (March 28th, 2018). ''[https://www.definejobs.com/2018/03/28/11-tips-to-help-you-get-new-clients-through-cold-calling/ Top 5 Younger – Pakistani Entrepreneurs]''. Define Jobs. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014055710/https://www.definejobs.com/2018/03/28/11-tips-to-help-you-get-new-clients-through-cold-calling/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref> (and co-founder Gavin Simon; 19??—Present) were the first to conceive of, and apply, the idea of a reactive narrator; which was a unique feature of the game design (which was hailed as ''"groundbreaking"'' by critics<ref name="Bitmob (September 27th, 2011).">Bitmob (September 27th, 2011). ''[https://venturebeat.com/2011/09/27/bastion-makes-me-wish-there-was-a-narrator-in-my-life-too/ Bastion Makes Me Wish there was a Narrator in My Life Too]''. Venture Beat. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015212633/https://venturebeat.com/2011/09/27/bastion-makes-me-wish-there-was-a-narrator-in-my-life-too/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"Between its groundbreaking incorporation of narrative, challenging combat system, and incredibly artful production, Bastion doesn’t need the, “for a downloadable game” qualifier.  It is simply one of the best games you will play this year"''.
#Bitmob (September 27th, 2011). ''[https://venturebeat.com/2011/09/27/bastion-makes-me-wish-there-was-a-narrator-in-my-life-too/ Bastion Makes Me Wish there was a Narrator in My Life Too]''. Venture Beat. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015212633/https://venturebeat.com/2011/09/27/bastion-makes-me-wish-there-was-a-narrator-in-my-life-too/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref>).<ref name="Josh Bycer (11th June 2012).">Josh Bycer (11th June 2012). ''[https://www.gamasutra.com/blogs/JoshBycer/20120611/172156/Extreme_Storytelling_The_Use_of_Narrative_Mechanics.php Extreme Storytelling: The Use of Narrative Mechanics]''. Gamasutra. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015010446/https://www.gamasutra.com/blogs/JoshBycer/20120611/172156/Extreme_Storytelling_The_Use_of_Narrative_Mechanics.php WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"Bastion's unique storytelling device was the reactive narrator. While the player is moving around and going through the levels, you can hear the voice of the narrator commenting on the events. Most of the comments are pre-canned about the level itself, but there are plenty that come from how the player is playing. Such as if the player is taking a lot of damage, or what weapons they decide to use. While the effect is basic, it does show how the player's use of the mechanics could affect how the narrative is being told"''.
#Josh Bycer (11th June 2012). ''[https://www.gamasutra.com/blogs/JoshBycer/20120611/172156/Extreme_Storytelling_The_Use_of_Narrative_Mechanics.php Extreme Storytelling: The Use of Narrative Mechanics]''. Gamasutra. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015010446/https://www.gamasutra.com/blogs/JoshBycer/20120611/172156/Extreme_Storytelling_The_Use_of_Narrative_Mechanics.php WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref><ref name="gamingphanatic">''[https://gamingphanatic.com/2011/06/07/bastion-fact-sheet/ Bastion Fact Sheet]''. June 7th, 2011. Gaming Phanatic. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015210333/https://gamingphanatic.com/2011/06/07/bastion-fact-sheet/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''" Bastion introduces a one-of-a-kind reactive narration system, which gradually reveals a rich back story as the narrator reacts to the player’s actions, allowing for the player to have a truly personalized gameplay experience. The game features thousands of lines of narration. No player will be able to hear it all the first time through the game"''.
#''[https://gamingphanatic.com/2011/06/07/bastion-fact-sheet/ Bastion Fact Sheet]''. June 7th, 2011. Gaming Phanatic. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015210333/https://gamingphanatic.com/2011/06/07/bastion-fact-sheet/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Adam Rosenberg (February 15th, 2013).">Adam Rosenberg (February 15th, 2013). ''[https://www.digitaltrends.com/gaming/strolling-through-bastion-with-supergiants-amir-rao/ Bastion was a massive success on multiple platforms; its designer explains how]''. Digital Trends. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20181028002453/https://www.digitaltrends.com/gaming/strolling-through-bastion-with-supergiants-amir-rao/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"The game fleshed out slowly as the Supergiant team grew naturally, organically. Adding new minds and new perspectives to the project bred different ideas. Some of the game’s most popular elements didn’t come until after this happened..."A lot of what was special about Bastion actually came...when we tried certain ideas, like the reactive narration"..."''.
#Adam Rosenberg (February 15th, 2013). ''[https://www.digitaltrends.com/gaming/strolling-through-bastion-with-supergiants-amir-rao/ Bastion was a massive success on multiple platforms; its designer explains how]''. Digital Trends. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20181028002453/https://www.digitaltrends.com/gaming/strolling-through-bastion-with-supergiants-amir-rao/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Bitmob (December 7th, 2011).">Bitmob (December 7th, 2011). ''[https://venturebeat.com/2011/12/07/why-bastion-is-a-masterpiece/ Why Bastion is a Masterpiece]''. Venture Beat. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015212119/https://venturebeat.com/2011/12/07/why-bastion-is-a-masterpiece/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"The true marvel of Bastion is that underneath the gameplay mechanics rests a deep, enriching experience that truly pushes the envelope with what videogames are capable of...Bastion appears at first glance as though a story book. Its world is bright and colorful, though broken, and it hints at a certain whimsical charm that instantly draws you in. It seems almost natural, then, that there should be a narrator. The inclusion of the Narrator is Bastion’s most unique feature as well as one of its greatest triumphs"''.
#Bitmob (December 7th, 2011). ''[https://venturebeat.com/2011/12/07/why-bastion-is-a-masterpiece/ Why Bastion is a Masterpiece]''. Venture Beat. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015212119/https://venturebeat.com/2011/12/07/why-bastion-is-a-masterpiece/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref> They used this in their storytelling to create ''"Bastion"'' (2011), which was the first to have this idea incorporated into it, containing ~3,000 lines of dialogue that specifically have the narrator react to the actions of the player where ''"every action triggers a unique piece of commentary"''.<ref name="S. Kohler (May 26th, 2011).">S. Kohler (May 26th, 2011). ''[https://www.wired.com/2011/05/bastion-e3-hands-on/ Hands-On: Bastion Spins an Intriguing Role-Playing Yarn]''. Wired. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015005701/https://www.wired.com/2011/05/bastion-e3-hands-on/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Alex Laffer (January 15th, 2017).">Alex Laffer (January 15th, 2017). ''[https://bookriot.com/2017/01/15/great-books-arent-books-storytelling-games/ GREAT BOOKS THAT AREN’T BOOKS: STORYTELLING IN GAMES]''. Book Riot. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20170612224548/http://bookriot.com/2017/01/15/great-books-arent-books-storytelling-games/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref> The game was enormously popular selling over 3 million copies worldwide.<ref name="Matt Liebl (December 28th, 2015)2">Matt Liebl (December 28th, 2015). ''[http://www.gamezone.com/news/latest-bastion-transistor-sales-figures-revealed-3431523 Latest Bastion, Transistor sales figures revealed]''. Game Zone. Retrieved March 12th, 2016.</ref><ref name="Jordan Devore (December 28th, 2015)2">Jordan Devore (December 28th, 2015). ''[http://www.destructoid.com/transistor-sells-over-a-million-copies-330064.phtml?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter TRANSISTOR SELLS OVER A MILLION COPIES]''. Destructoid. Retrieved March 12th, 2016.</ref>
:::::::::**Interestingly, the legacy of ''"Bastion's"'' reactive narrative design has inspired other games to adopt a (partially) similar approach, most notably ''"Getting Over It With Bennett Foddy"'' (2017)—a rage-game designed to induce immense anger, frustration and grief in the player.<ref name="gettingoverit">''[http://www.thelevelupnetwork.com/blog/getting-over-it-with-bennett-foddy-review Getting Over it with Bennett Foddy Review]''. January 16th, 2018. The Level Up Network. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015012843/http://www.thelevelupnetwork.com/blog/getting-over-it-with-bennett-foddy-review WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref>
:::::::::**Rao has mistakenly been labelled as ''"Indian-American"''<ref name="ChakravortyKapur2016">Sanjoy Chakravorty; Devesh Kapur; Nirvikar Singh (28 October 2016). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H75jDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA255&lpg=PA255&dq=Amir+Rao+29&source=bl&ots=M7A3wjQxQs&sig=ACfU3U2AUJMPSaoYlicB8mnZsZLG64gTgw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwighPS0gpvlAhXLNcAKHVJIBMg4ChDoATAEegQIBxAB#v=onepage&q=Amir%20Rao%2029&f=false The Other One Percent: Indians in America]''. Oxford University Press. p. 255. ISBN 978-0-19-064875-6.</ref> (as Indian news reports have also called him ''"Indian-origin"''; despite the fact that ''"Amir Rao"'' is a common Pakistani name and not an Indian one; for example the head of ''"Microsoft Pakistan"'' is a Pakistani named Amir Rao, and there is also a Pakistani film director called Amir Rao too<ref group="n.">
A significant amount of Pakistanis are known as Amir Rao. This includes film directors and IT directors.
#Staff Report (September 13th, 2017). ''[https://dailytimes.com.pk/117123/pakistani-artists-to-participate-in-cultural-events-in-china/ Pakistani artists to participate in cultural events in China]''. Daily Times. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014054408/https://dailytimes.com.pk/117123/pakistani-artists-to-participate-in-cultural-events-in-china/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.
#Shoaib Khalil (July 9th, 2013). ''[https://asianetpakistan.com/business-news/general-business-news/147682/microsoft-pakistan-empowers-businesses-through-technology-innovation-amir-rao/ Microsoft Pakistan empowers businesses through Technology innovation: Amir Rao]'' Asia Net Pakistan. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014054842/https://asianetpakistan.com/business-news/general-business-news/147682/microsoft-pakistan-empowers-businesses-through-technology-innovation-amir-rao/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref>). It is certainly possible that they have confused his second name ''"Rao"'' as being Hindu (however it is actually Rajput in origin), as it is both used by Hindus and Muslims (in both Pakistan and India). Interestingly the Muslim actor Aamir Khan is married to a Hindu woman called Kiran Rao.<ref name="KaminskyLong2011">Arnold P. Kaminsky; Roger D. Long (30 September 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wWDnTWrz4O8C&pg=PA408&dq=Aamir+Khan+is+a+married+to+a+Hindu+woman+called+Kiran+Rao&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjh-ta9hp3lAhVBhlwKHQYlDSoQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=Aamir%20Khan%20is%20a%20married%20to%20a%20Hindu%20woman%20called%20Kiran%20Rao&f=false India Today: An Encyclopedia of Life in the Republic]''. ABC-CLIO. p. 408. ISBN 978-0-313-37462-3.</ref><ref name="Gurovar2018">Rāj Gurovar (2018). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zd5qDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT262&dq=Kiran+Rao+religion&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi-0Mr-hp3lAhUDKlAKHegxAFAQ6AEIMDAB The Legends of Bollywood]''. Jaico Publishing House. pp. 262–. ISBN 978-93-86867-99-5.</ref> However, Amir Rao's first name, ''"Amir"'', clearly betrays his Muslim heritage; as Amir is a Muslim name (originating from Arabic/Somali) meaning ''"command"'', ''"rule"'', ''"princely"''', or ''"born in abundant times"''.<ref name="Hanks2003">Patrick Hanks (8 May 2003). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FJoDDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA35&dq=Amir+name+meaning&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjeoJ7LipvlAhUBnVwKHal9D6sQ6AEIRTAE#v=onepage&q=Amir%20name%20meaning&f=false Dictionary of American Family Names]''. Oxford University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-19-977169-1.</ref><ref name="LakhnaviBilgrami2008">Ghalib Lakhnavi; Abdullah Bilgrami (14 October 2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ePiT1lyhKS4C&pg=PR17&dq=Amir+meaning&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj3uKWAi5vlAhUYilwKHSaYAkcQ6AEIZTAJ#v=onepage&q=Amir%20meaning&f=false The Adventures of Amir hamza]''. Random House Publishing Group. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-58836-825-6.</ref><ref name="Anon2005">Anon (21 November 2005). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=euvnAr8c_OIC&pg=PT28&dq=Amir+name+meaning&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj-i5DpipvlAhUJQEEAHQ-XAEc4ChDoAQhfMAg#v=onepage&q=Amir%20name%20meaning&f=false The Penguin Book of Names for Australian Babies]''. Penguin Random House Australia. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-74228-697-6.</ref><ref name="Davis2005">Sarah Davis (4 January 2005). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jKOIk1Ga4KoC&pg=PT10&dq=Amir+name+meaning&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj-i5DpipvlAhUJQEEAHQ-XAEc4ChDoAQg2MAI#v=onepage&q=Amir%20name%20meaning&f=false 1001 Names for Australian Babies]''. Penguin Random House Australia. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-74228-696-9.</ref><ref name="Cahen2014">Claude Cahen (11 June 2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-FvJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA285&dq=Amir+meaning&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwizgpnNi5vlAhV5Q0EAHdaJDQo4ChDoAQg2MAI#v=onepage&q=Amir%20meaning&f=false The Formation of Turkey: The Seljukid Sultanate of Rum: Eleventh to Fourteenth Century]''. Routledge. p. 285. ISBN 978-1-317-87626-7.</ref>
[[File:Dice-2.jpg|thumb|right|100px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">5,000-year-old dice.</div>]]
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'''[[#Astronomy & Universe (4)|Astronomy]]''' •
'''[[#Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)|Agriculture, Food & Beverage]]''' •
'''[[#Biology (2)|Biology]]''' (''[[#Paleontology (10)|Paleontology]]'') •
'''[[#Chemistry (5)|Chemistry]]''' •
'''[[#Computing (4)|Computing]]''' (''[[#Video-gaming (1)|Video-gaming]] • [[#Board Games (1)|Board-games]]'') •
'''[[#Mathematics (3)|Mathematics]]''' •
'''[[#Medicines (1)|Medicine]]''' (''[[#Disease Eradication (1)|Disease Eradication]]'' • ''[[#Genetics & Disease (5)|Genetics & Disease]]'' • ''[[#Medical Instruments (6)|Instruments]]'') •
'''[[#Physics (5)|Physics]]''' •
'''Engineering''' (''[[#Naval Engineering (1)|Naval]]'' • ''[[#Mechanical Engineering (7)|Mechanical]]'' • ''[[#Handtool Engineering (3)|Handtool]]'' • ''[[#Textile Engineering (3)|Textile]]'' (''[[#Clothing (2)|Clothing]]'') • ''[[#Architectural Engineering (4)|Architectural]]'') •
'''[[#Sport & Recreation (2)|Sport & Recreation]]''' •
'''[[#Disputed (2)|Disputed]]''' •
[[#Further Reading|Further Reading]] •
[[#Sources|Sources]] •
(''[[#Footnotes|Footnotes]]'' • ''[[#References|References]]'' • ''[[#Acknowledgements|Acknowledgements]]'') •
[[#External Links|External Links]] •
'''''Total Inventions & Discoveries Listed: 77'''''
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[History of Muslims in the Video-Games Industry (1980—Present)]]'''''
[[File:1471372252-125974054.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">''"Bastion"'' (2011), an indie game, was the first game to use reactive/real-time narration, which was lauded as ''"groundbreaking"'' by critics. This unique feature help it sell millions of copies.</div>]]
*'''Reactive Narration/Real-time<ref name="realtime">''[https://www.supergiantgames.com/blog/in-depth-writing-bastion/ In-Depth: Writing Bastion]''. October 26th, 2010. Supergiant Games. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015210806/https://www.supergiantgames.com/blog/in-depth-writing-bastion/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"Bastion uses real-time narration extensively. Its purpose is to deliver story and exposition, and to build atmosphere, investment, and immersion in close partnership with the gameplay."''.
#''[https://www.supergiantgames.com/blog/in-depth-writing-bastion/ In-Depth: Writing Bastion]''. October 26th, 2010. Supergiant Games. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015210806/https://www.supergiantgames.com/blog/in-depth-writing-bastion/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref> Narration'''—In 2011, Amir Rao (19??—Present), a Pakistani American,<ref name="Fahad Ahmad (February 9th, 2016).">Fahad Ahmad (February 9th, 2016). ''[https://nation.com.pk/10-Feb-2016/10-young-pakistan-entrepreneurs-who-deserve-appreciation 10 young Pakistan entrepreneurs who deserve appreciation]''. The Nation. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014052550/https://nation.com.pk/10-Feb-2016/10-young-pakistan-entrepreneurs-who-deserve-appreciation WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Mohammed Arifeen (October 9th, 2017).">Mohammed Arifeen (October 9th, 2017). ''[http://www.pakistaneconomist.com/2017/10/09/leading-10-young-pakistani-entrepreneurs-bring-name-fame-pakistan/ Leading 10 young Pakistani entrepreneurs bring name and fame for Pakistan]''. Pakistan Economist. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014054058/http://www.pakistaneconomist.com/2017/10/09/leading-10-young-pakistani-entrepreneurs-bring-name-fame-pakistan/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Admin (January 19th, 2017).">Admin (January 19th, 2017). ''[http://www.dashboardpk.com/the-young-entrepreneurs-of-pakistan/ The Young Entrepreneurs of Pakistan]''. Dashboard Pakistan News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014055226/http://www.dashboardpk.com/the-young-entrepreneurs-of-pakistan/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Admin (March 28th, 2018).">Admin (March 28th, 2018). ''[https://www.definejobs.com/2018/03/28/11-tips-to-help-you-get-new-clients-through-cold-calling/ Top 5 Younger – Pakistani Entrepreneurs]''. Define Jobs. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014055710/https://www.definejobs.com/2018/03/28/11-tips-to-help-you-get-new-clients-through-cold-calling/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref> (and co-founder Gavin Simon; 19??—Present) were the first to conceive of, and apply, the idea of a reactive narrator; which was a unique feature of the game design (which was hailed as ''"groundbreaking"'' by critics<ref name="Bitmob (September 27th, 2011).">Bitmob (September 27th, 2011). ''[https://venturebeat.com/2011/09/27/bastion-makes-me-wish-there-was-a-narrator-in-my-life-too/ Bastion Makes Me Wish there was a Narrator in My Life Too]''. Venture Beat. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015212633/https://venturebeat.com/2011/09/27/bastion-makes-me-wish-there-was-a-narrator-in-my-life-too/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"Between its groundbreaking incorporation of narrative, challenging combat system, and incredibly artful production, Bastion doesn’t need the, “for a downloadable game” qualifier.  It is simply one of the best games you will play this year"''.
#Bitmob (September 27th, 2011). ''[https://venturebeat.com/2011/09/27/bastion-makes-me-wish-there-was-a-narrator-in-my-life-too/ Bastion Makes Me Wish there was a Narrator in My Life Too]''. Venture Beat. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015212633/https://venturebeat.com/2011/09/27/bastion-makes-me-wish-there-was-a-narrator-in-my-life-too/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref>).<ref name="Josh Bycer (11th June 2012).">Josh Bycer (11th June 2012). ''[https://www.gamasutra.com/blogs/JoshBycer/20120611/172156/Extreme_Storytelling_The_Use_of_Narrative_Mechanics.php Extreme Storytelling: The Use of Narrative Mechanics]''. Gamasutra. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015010446/https://www.gamasutra.com/blogs/JoshBycer/20120611/172156/Extreme_Storytelling_The_Use_of_Narrative_Mechanics.php WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"Bastion's unique storytelling device was the reactive narrator. While the player is moving around and going through the levels, you can hear the voice of the narrator commenting on the events. Most of the comments are pre-canned about the level itself, but there are plenty that come from how the player is playing. Such as if the player is taking a lot of damage, or what weapons they decide to use. While the effect is basic, it does show how the player's use of the mechanics could affect how the narrative is being told"''.
#Josh Bycer (11th June 2012). ''[https://www.gamasutra.com/blogs/JoshBycer/20120611/172156/Extreme_Storytelling_The_Use_of_Narrative_Mechanics.php Extreme Storytelling: The Use of Narrative Mechanics]''. Gamasutra. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015010446/https://www.gamasutra.com/blogs/JoshBycer/20120611/172156/Extreme_Storytelling_The_Use_of_Narrative_Mechanics.php WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref><ref name="gamingphanatic">''[https://gamingphanatic.com/2011/06/07/bastion-fact-sheet/ Bastion Fact Sheet]''. June 7th, 2011. Gaming Phanatic. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015210333/https://gamingphanatic.com/2011/06/07/bastion-fact-sheet/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''" Bastion introduces a one-of-a-kind reactive narration system, which gradually reveals a rich back story as the narrator reacts to the player’s actions, allowing for the player to have a truly personalized gameplay experience. The game features thousands of lines of narration. No player will be able to hear it all the first time through the game"''.
#''[https://gamingphanatic.com/2011/06/07/bastion-fact-sheet/ Bastion Fact Sheet]''. June 7th, 2011. Gaming Phanatic. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015210333/https://gamingphanatic.com/2011/06/07/bastion-fact-sheet/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Adam Rosenberg (February 15th, 2013).">Adam Rosenberg (February 15th, 2013). ''[https://www.digitaltrends.com/gaming/strolling-through-bastion-with-supergiants-amir-rao/ Bastion was a massive success on multiple platforms; its designer explains how]''. Digital Trends. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20181028002453/https://www.digitaltrends.com/gaming/strolling-through-bastion-with-supergiants-amir-rao/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"The game fleshed out slowly as the Supergiant team grew naturally, organically. Adding new minds and new perspectives to the project bred different ideas. Some of the game’s most popular elements didn’t come until after this happened..."A lot of what was special about Bastion actually came...when we tried certain ideas, like the reactive narration"..."''.
#Adam Rosenberg (February 15th, 2013). ''[https://www.digitaltrends.com/gaming/strolling-through-bastion-with-supergiants-amir-rao/ Bastion was a massive success on multiple platforms; its designer explains how]''. Digital Trends. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20181028002453/https://www.digitaltrends.com/gaming/strolling-through-bastion-with-supergiants-amir-rao/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Bitmob (December 7th, 2011).">Bitmob (December 7th, 2011). ''[https://venturebeat.com/2011/12/07/why-bastion-is-a-masterpiece/ Why Bastion is a Masterpiece]''. Venture Beat. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015212119/https://venturebeat.com/2011/12/07/why-bastion-is-a-masterpiece/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"The true marvel of Bastion is that underneath the gameplay mechanics rests a deep, enriching experience that truly pushes the envelope with what videogames are capable of...Bastion appears at first glance as though a story book. Its world is bright and colorful, though broken, and it hints at a certain whimsical charm that instantly draws you in. It seems almost natural, then, that there should be a narrator. The inclusion of the Narrator is Bastion’s most unique feature as well as one of its greatest triumphs"''.
#Bitmob (December 7th, 2011). ''[https://venturebeat.com/2011/12/07/why-bastion-is-a-masterpiece/ Why Bastion is a Masterpiece]''. Venture Beat. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015212119/https://venturebeat.com/2011/12/07/why-bastion-is-a-masterpiece/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref> They used this in their storytelling to create ''"Bastion"'' (2011), which was the first to have this idea incorporated into it, containing ~3,000 lines of dialogue that specifically have the narrator react to the actions of the player where ''"every action triggers a unique piece of commentary"''.<ref name="S. Kohler (May 26th, 2011).">S. Kohler (May 26th, 2011). ''[https://www.wired.com/2011/05/bastion-e3-hands-on/ Hands-On: Bastion Spins an Intriguing Role-Playing Yarn]''. Wired. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015005701/https://www.wired.com/2011/05/bastion-e3-hands-on/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Alex Laffer (January 15th, 2017).">Alex Laffer (January 15th, 2017). ''[https://bookriot.com/2017/01/15/great-books-arent-books-storytelling-games/ GREAT BOOKS THAT AREN’T BOOKS: STORYTELLING IN GAMES]''. Book Riot. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20170612224548/http://bookriot.com/2017/01/15/great-books-arent-books-storytelling-games/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref> The game was enormously popular selling over 3 million copies worldwide.<ref name="Matt Liebl (December 28th, 2015)2">Matt Liebl (December 28th, 2015). ''[http://www.gamezone.com/news/latest-bastion-transistor-sales-figures-revealed-3431523 Latest Bastion, Transistor sales figures revealed]''. Game Zone. Retrieved March 12th, 2016.</ref><ref name="Jordan Devore (December 28th, 2015)2">Jordan Devore (December 28th, 2015). ''[http://www.destructoid.com/transistor-sells-over-a-million-copies-330064.phtml?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter TRANSISTOR SELLS OVER A MILLION COPIES]''. Destructoid. Retrieved March 12th, 2016.</ref>
**Interestingly, the legacy of ''"Bastion's"'' reactive narrative design has inspired other games to adopt a (partially) similar approach, most notably ''"Getting Over It With Bennett Foddy"'' (2017)—a rage-game designed to induce immense anger, frustration and grief in the player.<ref name="gettingoverit">''[http://www.thelevelupnetwork.com/blog/getting-over-it-with-bennett-foddy-review Getting Over it with Bennett Foddy Review]''. January 16th, 2018. The Level Up Network. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191015012843/http://www.thelevelupnetwork.com/blog/getting-over-it-with-bennett-foddy-review WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref>
**Rao has mistakenly been labelled as ''"Indian-American"''<ref name="ChakravortyKapur2016">Sanjoy Chakravorty; Devesh Kapur; Nirvikar Singh (28 October 2016). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H75jDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA255&lpg=PA255&dq=Amir+Rao+29&source=bl&ots=M7A3wjQxQs&sig=ACfU3U2AUJMPSaoYlicB8mnZsZLG64gTgw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwighPS0gpvlAhXLNcAKHVJIBMg4ChDoATAEegQIBxAB#v=onepage&q=Amir%20Rao%2029&f=false The Other One Percent: Indians in America]''. Oxford University Press. p. 255. ISBN 978-0-19-064875-6.</ref> (as Indian news reports have also called him ''"Indian-origin"''; despite the fact that ''"Amir Rao"'' is a common Pakistani name and not an Indian one; for example the head of ''"Microsoft Pakistan"'' is a Pakistani named Amir Rao, and there is also a Pakistani film director called Amir Rao too<ref group="n.">
A significant amount of Pakistanis are known as Amir Rao. This includes film directors and IT directors.
#Staff Report (September 13th, 2017). ''[https://dailytimes.com.pk/117123/pakistani-artists-to-participate-in-cultural-events-in-china/ Pakistani artists to participate in cultural events in China]''. Daily Times. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014054408/https://dailytimes.com.pk/117123/pakistani-artists-to-participate-in-cultural-events-in-china/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.
#Shoaib Khalil (July 9th, 2013). ''[https://asianetpakistan.com/business-news/general-business-news/147682/microsoft-pakistan-empowers-businesses-through-technology-innovation-amir-rao/ Microsoft Pakistan empowers businesses through Technology innovation: Amir Rao]'' Asia Net Pakistan. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014054842/https://asianetpakistan.com/business-news/general-business-news/147682/microsoft-pakistan-empowers-businesses-through-technology-innovation-amir-rao/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref>). It is certainly possible that they have confused his second name ''"Rao"'' as being Hindu (however it is actually Rajput in origin), as it is both used by Hindus and Muslims (in both Pakistan and India). Interestingly the Muslim actor Aamir Khan is married to a Hindu woman called Kiran Rao.<ref name="KaminskyLong2011">Arnold P. Kaminsky; Roger D. Long (30 September 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wWDnTWrz4O8C&pg=PA408&dq=Aamir+Khan+is+a+married+to+a+Hindu+woman+called+Kiran+Rao&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjh-ta9hp3lAhVBhlwKHQYlDSoQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=Aamir%20Khan%20is%20a%20married%20to%20a%20Hindu%20woman%20called%20Kiran%20Rao&f=false India Today: An Encyclopedia of Life in the Republic]''. ABC-CLIO. p. 408. ISBN 978-0-313-37462-3.</ref><ref name="Gurovar2018">Rāj Gurovar (2018). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zd5qDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT262&dq=Kiran+Rao+religion&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi-0Mr-hp3lAhUDKlAKHegxAFAQ6AEIMDAB The Legends of Bollywood]''. Jaico Publishing House. pp. 262–. ISBN 978-93-86867-99-5.</ref> However, Amir Rao's first name, ''"Amir"'', clearly betrays his Muslim heritage; as Amir is a Muslim name (originating from Arabic/Somali) meaning ''"command"'', ''"rule"'', ''"princely"''', or ''"born in abundant times"''.<ref name="Hanks2003">Patrick Hanks (8 May 2003). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FJoDDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA35&dq=Amir+name+meaning&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjeoJ7LipvlAhUBnVwKHal9D6sQ6AEIRTAE#v=onepage&q=Amir%20name%20meaning&f=false Dictionary of American Family Names]''. Oxford University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-19-977169-1.</ref><ref name="LakhnaviBilgrami2008">Ghalib Lakhnavi; Abdullah Bilgrami (14 October 2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ePiT1lyhKS4C&pg=PR17&dq=Amir+meaning&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj3uKWAi5vlAhUYilwKHSaYAkcQ6AEIZTAJ#v=onepage&q=Amir%20meaning&f=false The Adventures of Amir hamza]''. Random House Publishing Group. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-58836-825-6.</ref><ref name="Anon2005">Anon (21 November 2005). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=euvnAr8c_OIC&pg=PT28&dq=Amir+name+meaning&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj-i5DpipvlAhUJQEEAHQ-XAEc4ChDoAQhfMAg#v=onepage&q=Amir%20name%20meaning&f=false The Penguin Book of Names for Australian Babies]''. Penguin Random House Australia. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-74228-697-6.</ref><ref name="Davis2005">Sarah Davis (4 January 2005). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jKOIk1Ga4KoC&pg=PT10&dq=Amir+name+meaning&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj-i5DpipvlAhUJQEEAHQ-XAEc4ChDoAQg2MAI#v=onepage&q=Amir%20name%20meaning&f=false 1001 Names for Australian Babies]''. Penguin Random House Australia. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-74228-696-9.</ref><ref name="Cahen2014">Claude Cahen (11 June 2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-FvJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA285&dq=Amir+meaning&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwizgpnNi5vlAhV5Q0EAHdaJDQo4ChDoAQg2MAI#v=onepage&q=Amir%20meaning&f=false The Formation of Turkey: The Seljukid Sultanate of Rum: Eleventh to Fourteenth Century]''. Routledge. p. 285. ISBN 978-1-317-87626-7.</ref>
[[File:Dice-2.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">5,000-year-old dice.</div>]]
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===Board Games (1)===
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::<small>''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[History of Muslims in the Video-Games Industry (1980—Present)]]'''''</small>
*'''Dice (''Die''), Cubed'''—The Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 7000 BC—c. 1300 BC) was the first to invent cubic dice (more specifically during the Harappan Period<ref name="Dales1968">Dales, George F. (1968). ''[https://www.jstor.org/stable/597890?origin=crossref Of Dice and Men]''. Journal of the American Oriental Society. 88 (1): 14. doi:10.2307/597890. ISSN 0003-0279.</ref>), which were exported to Mesopotamia (with archeological evidence of these cubic dice being found in Palestine as early as 3,000 BC<ref name="Masukawa2016">Masukawa, Koichi (2016). ''[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-981-10-0575-6_1 The Origins of Board Games and Ancient Game Boards]''. 9: 3–11. doi:10.1007/978-981-10-0575-6_1. ISSN 2197-8832.</ref>).<ref name="de VoogtEerkens2015">de Voogt, Alex; Eerkens, Jelmer W.; Sherman-Presser, Rachel (2015). ''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278416515000471?via%3Dihub Production bias in cultural evolution: An examination of cubic dice variation in experimental and archaeological contexts]''. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 40: 151–159. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2015.07.003. ISSN 0278-4165.</ref> The Indus Valley had three different ways to mark dice.<ref name="Pruthi2004">Raj Pruthi (2004). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uRMGDmdE9FkC&pg=PA153&dq=dice+indus+valley&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwje4OHO97biAhV5TRUIHe1WDl0Q6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=dice%20indus%20valley&f=false Prehistory and Harappan Civilization]''. APH Publishing. p. 153. ISBN 978-81-7648-581-4.</ref> The dice were marked with the numbers 1, 2 and 3, and the rest marked with longitudial lines, the second was marked 1 opposite to 2, 3 opposite to 4 and 5 opposite to 6, and the third marked with modern markings, which were 1 opposite to 6, 2 opposite to 5 and 3 opposite to 4.<ref name="Pruthi2004"/>
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'''[[#Astronomy & Universe (4)|Astronomy]]''' •
'''[[#Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)|Agriculture, Food & Beverage]]''' •
'''[[#Biology (2)|Biology]]''' (''[[#Paleontology (10)|Paleontology]]'') •
'''[[#Chemistry (5)|Chemistry]]''' •
'''[[#Computing (4)|Computing]]''' (''[[#Video-gaming (1)|Video-gaming]] • [[#Board Games (1)|Board-games]]'') •
'''[[#Mathematics (3)|Mathematics]]''' •
'''[[#Medicines (1)|Medicine]]''' (''[[#Disease Eradication (1)|Disease Eradication]]'' • ''[[#Genetics & Disease (5)|Genetics & Disease]]'' • ''[[#Medical Instruments (6)|Instruments]]'') •
'''[[#Physics (5)|Physics]]''' •
'''Engineering''' (''[[#Naval Engineering (1)|Naval]]'' • ''[[#Mechanical Engineering (7)|Mechanical]]'' • ''[[#Handtool Engineering (3)|Handtool]]'' • ''[[#Textile Engineering (3)|Textile]]'' (''[[#Clothing (2)|Clothing]]'') • ''[[#Architectural Engineering (4)|Architectural]]'') •
'''[[#Sport & Recreation (2)|Sport & Recreation]]''' •
'''[[#Disputed (2)|Disputed]]''' •
[[#Further Reading|Further Reading]] •
[[#Sources|Sources]] •
(''[[#Footnotes|Footnotes]]'' • ''[[#References|References]]'' • ''[[#Acknowledgements|Acknowledgements]]'') •
[[#External Links|External Links]] •
'''''Total Inventions & Discoveries Listed: 77'''''
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::<small>''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[History of Muslims in the Video-Games Industry (1980—Present)]]'''''</small>
*'''Dice (''Die''), Cubed'''—The Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 7000 BC—c. 1300 BC) was the first to invent cubic dice (more specifically during the Harappan Period<ref name="Dales1968">Dales, George F. (1968). ''[https://www.jstor.org/stable/597890?origin=crossref Of Dice and Men]''. Journal of the American Oriental Society. 88 (1): 14. doi:10.2307/597890. ISSN 0003-0279.</ref>), which were exported to Mesopotamia (with archeological evidence of these cubic dice being found in Palestine as early as 3,000 BC<ref name="Masukawa2016">Masukawa, Koichi (2016). ''[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-981-10-0575-6_1 The Origins of Board Games and Ancient Game Boards]''. 9: 3–11. doi:10.1007/978-981-10-0575-6_1. ISSN 2197-8832.</ref>).<ref name="de VoogtEerkens2015">de Voogt, Alex; Eerkens, Jelmer W.; Sherman-Presser, Rachel (2015). ''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278416515000471?via%3Dihub Production bias in cultural evolution: An examination of cubic dice variation in experimental and archaeological contexts]''. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 40: 151–159. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2015.07.003. ISSN 0278-4165.</ref> The Indus Valley had three different ways to mark dice.<ref name="Pruthi2004">Raj Pruthi (2004). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uRMGDmdE9FkC&pg=PA153&dq=dice+indus+valley&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwje4OHO97biAhV5TRUIHe1WDl0Q6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=dice%20indus%20valley&f=false Prehistory and Harappan Civilization]''. APH Publishing. p. 153. ISBN 978-81-7648-581-4.</ref> The dice were marked with the numbers 1, 2 and 3, and the rest marked with longitudial lines, the second was marked 1 opposite to 2, 3 opposite to 4 and 5 opposite to 6, and the third marked with modern markings, which were 1 opposite to 6, 2 opposite to 5 and 3 opposite to 4.<ref name="Pruthi2004"/>
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===Mathematics (3)===
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete.''
[[File:Aziz-Mackenzie Model.jpg|thumb|left|160px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:70%;">The Aziz—Mackenzie Model.<ref name="Marcus Strom (May 15th, 2016).">Marcus Strom (May 15th, 2016). ''[https://www.smh.com.au/technology/fair-allocation-algorithm-that-cuts-cakes-and-may-settle-trump-divorces-20160503-gokmwt.html Fair allocation: Algorithm that cuts cakes and may settle Trump divorces]''. Sydney Morning Herald. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010215455/https://www.smh.com.au/technology/fair-allocation-algorithm-that-cuts-cakes-and-may-settle-trump-divorces-20160503-gokmwt.html?js-chunk-not-found-refresh=true WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref></div>]]
::::::::*'''Aziz—MacKenzie Model'''—In 2016,<ref group="n.">Haris Aziz, Simon Mackenzie (13th April 2016). ''[https://arxiv.org/abs/1604.03655 A Discrete and Bounded Envy-Free Cake Cutting Protocol for Any Number of Agents]''. Cornell University. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010215705/https://arxiv.org/abs/1604.03655 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref> Haris Aziz (c. 1981—Present<ref group="n.">According to a October 13th, 2016 publication of ''"Scientific American"'', Aziz is stated to be 35 years old, and MacKenzie 27 years old.
:::'''Quote''': ''"Haris Aziz, a 35-year-old computer scientist at the University of New South Wales and Data61, a data research group in Australia...27-year-old Simon Mackenzie, a postdoctoral researcher at Carnegie Mellon"''.
#Erica Klarreich (October 13th, 2016). ''[https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-mathematics-of-cake-cutting/ The Mathematics of Cake Cutting]''. Scientific American. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191011001104/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-mathematics-of-cake-cutting/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 11th, 2019.</ref>) and Simon Mackenzie (c. 1989—Present<ref group="n.">According to a October 13th, 2016 publication of ''"Scientific American"'', Aziz is stated to be 35 years old, and MacKenzie 27 years old.
:::'''Quote''': ''"Haris Aziz, a 35-year-old computer scientist at the University of New South Wales and Data61, a data research group in Australia...27-year-old Simon Mackenzie, a postdoctoral researcher at Carnegie Mellon"''.
#Erica Klarreich (October 13th, 2016). ''[https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-mathematics-of-cake-cutting/ The Mathematics of Cake Cutting]''. Scientific American. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191011001104/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-mathematics-of-cake-cutting/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 11th, 2019.</ref>) were the first to solve a complex mathematical problem in game theory known as ''"[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envy-free_cake-cutting envy-free caking cutting]"'' (which was previously thought impossible to solve<ref name="Ali Ahmed (May 24th, 2016).">Ali Ahmed (May 24th, 2016). ''[https://www.brecorder.com/2016/05/24/297905/pakistani-mathematician-solved-one-of-the-biggest-maths-problems/ Pakistani Mathematician solved one of the biggest Maths problems]''. Business Recorder. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010214907/https://www.brecorder.com/2016/05/24/297905/pakistani-mathematician-solved-one-of-the-biggest-maths-problems/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref>). The problem describes a scenario where a limited (non-symmetrical<ref name="Andrew Silver (August 5th, 2016).">Andrew Silver (August 5th, 2016). ''[https://www.insidescience.org/news/how-cut-cake-according-math How To Cut Cake, According To Math]''. Inside Science. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191011002657/https://www.insidescience.org/news/how-cut-cake-according-math WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 11th, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">In order to under the non-symmetrical nature of the problem, it must be understood like this;
:::'''Quote''': ''"In theory, the work of Aziz and co-author Simon Mackenzie could be used to mete out contested items like family art collections or even fishing rights in international waters. Aziz studies an area of economics known as fair division, which includes researching how to divide resources so that participants are not envious of one another. While equal portions are perhaps the obvious solution, they aren't always the answer. Different people might value some portions more or less than others. Imagine, for example, a sheet cake laden with chocolate chips and strawberries on the center but with only a sparse sprinkling of pecans on the corners. To divide such a cake between two people in an envy-free manner, one person could cut the cake into two pieces he or she finds equally desirable and then let the other person pick a favorite. The more people participating, the more chances for envy to sneak in."''
#Andrew Silver (August 5th, 2016). ''[https://www.insidescience.org/news/how-cut-cake-according-math How To Cut Cake, According To Math]''. Inside Science. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191011002657/https://www.insidescience.org/news/how-cut-cake-according-math WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 11th, 2019.</ref>) resource (such as a ''"cake"'', ''"time, property settlement, or computing resource"''<ref name="Sunehra Mehmood (May 27th, 2016).">Sunehra Mehmood (May 27th, 2016). ''[https://tribune.com.pk/story/1108666/pakistani-makes-major-breakthrough-longstanding-mathematics-problem/ Pakistani makes major breakthrough in longstanding mathematics problem]''. The Tribune. ''[http://archive.is/TpEy1 Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref>) must be shared equally with an infinite number of people. To put it into simple terms, it is also known as ''"cake cutting"'' theory where each person must end up ''"with a fair share"''. Whilst this may sound banal, it is actually ''extremely'' complicated (see this<ref name="Haris Aziz, Simon MacKenzie 13th April 2016">Haris Aziz, Simon MacKenzie (Submitted 13th April 2016; Accepted 27th August 2017). ''[https://arxiv.org/pdf/1604.03655.pdf A Discrete and Bounded Envy-free Cake Cutting Protocol for Any Number of Agents]''. Cornell University. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010215554/https://arxiv.org/pdf/1604.03655.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Haris Aziz, Simon Mackenzie (Unknown Date).">Haris Aziz, Simon Mackenzie (Unknown Date). ''[http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~haziz/efcake_slides.pdf A Discrete and Bounded Envy-free Cake Cutting Protocol for Any Number of Agents]''. University of New South Wales (Data61, CSIRO and UNSW). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010222936/http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~haziz/efcake_slides.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref>) as it involves a series of complicated steps to achieve true resource equality.
::::::::**Some mathematicians believe the algorithm—although it solves the problem—may be too complicated to apply practically. Aziz somehwat agrees, saying ''"[n]ot only is the algorithm complex but the number of steps it takes to get the job done can be too high in the worst case. So our result should be viewed as a mathematical result rather than a practical engineering result...[h]aving said that, many experts previously thought that there was no algorithm that takes a bounded number of steps or cuts even for four persons. Now that we have a bounded algorithm, it provides hope to refine the ideas to get better bounds. Some of the mathematical ideas and algorithmic techniques may be useful for other problems"''.<ref name="Sunehra Mehmood (May 27th, 2016)."/>

[[File:Hdi.jpg|thumb|right|80px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;font-size:70%;">HDI.</div>]]
*'''Human Development Index (HDI)'''—Mahbub ul Haq (1934—1998<ref name="Clark2006">David Clark (2006). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kUerTqCKydAC&pg=PA213&dq=Mahbub+ul+Haq+(1934%E2%80%941998)&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiUhsjRioXjAhXcUxUIHSJfB00Q6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=Mahbub%20ul%20Haq%20(1934%E2%80%941998)&f=false The Elgar Companion to Development Studies]''. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 213. ISBN 978-1-84720-286-4.</ref>) was the first to invent the HDI in 1990.<ref name="Prescott-Allen2001"/><ref name="Quinn2017">Riley Quinn (5 July 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=akkrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32&dq=Haq+devised+the+Human+Development+Index&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjd99bujIXjAhXhRxUIHeiNCOIQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Haq%20devised%20the%20Human%20Development%20Index&f=false Reflections on Human Development]''. CRC Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-1-351-35099-0.</ref><ref name="MirakhorAskari2010">A. Mirakhor; H. Askari (18 August 2010). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Al3FAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA33&dq=Haq+devised+the+Human+Development+Index&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwitzM23jYXjAhVNUMAKHYh4A1QQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=Haq%20devised%20the%20Human%20Development%20Index&f=false Islam and the Path to Human and Economic Development]''. Springer. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-230-11001-4.</ref><ref name="Baru, Sanjaya (1998).">Baru, Sanjaya (1998). ''[www.jstor.org/stable/4407121. Mahbub Ul Haq and Human Development: A Tribute]''. Economic and Political Weekly. Vol. 33. No. 35. pp. 2275–2279. Retrieved June 25th, 2019.</ref> While he was working on the development of the HDI itself, some were sceptical of its usefulness, but Haq pushed forward and insisted that only a single number could shift the attention of economic policy makers from ''"material output to human well-being as a measure of progress"''.<ref name="Ghosh2008">Ed. Robin Ghosh (2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=D3fYk6cgzigC&pg=PA12&dq=Haq+devised+the+Human+Development+Index&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjd99bujIXjAhXhRxUIHeiNCOIQ6AEIUjAH#v=onepage&q=Haq%20devised%20the%20Human%20Development%20Index&f=false Development Studies]''. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 12. ISBN 978-81-269-0935-3.</ref> Despite his idea courting controversy amongst economists the world over,<ref name="Baru, Sanjaya (1998)."/> he was later proven right, and ultimately it was adopted as a valuable economic metric. In 2010 the HDI was further improved with a few changes.
**The ''"Barometer of Sustainability"'' was later directly inspired by the work of Haq.<ref name="Prescott-Allen2001">Robert Prescott-Allen (2001). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9oIMBp0uH-sC&pg=PR21&dq=Haq+devised+the+Human+Development+Index&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjd99bujIXjAhXhRxUIHeiNCOIQ6AEIXjAJ#v=onepage&q=Haq&f=false The Wellbeing of Nations]''. Island Press. p. XXI. ISBN 978-1-59726-350-4.</ref> Haq was also the architect of the ''"World Development Report"'' for the World Bank.<ref name="Baru, Sanjaya (1998)."/> Between 1982 and 1988 he served as the several roles as minister, including in Finance, Commerce and Planning.<ref name="Baru, Sanjaya (1998)."/> He also actively helped fund the ''[[Project-706/726 (Pakistani Nuclear Weapons Project)|Pakistani nuclear bomb project]]'' (c. 1974—c. 1998).<ref name="Baru, Sanjaya (1998)."/> The project itself were very secret, and ultimately cemented Pakistan's position as a nuclear scientific powerhouse. He was succeeded by his wife—Khadija—and two children—Toneema and Farhan—after his death in 1998.<ref name="Clark2006p218">David Clark (2006). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kUerTqCKydAC&pg=PA218&dq=mahbub+ul+haq+human+development+index&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjc9bG4hYXjAhWVrHEKHaW0BEYQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=mahbub%20ul%20haq%20human%20development%20index&f=false The Elgar Companion to Development Studies]''. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 218. ISBN 978-1-84720-286-4.</ref>

[[File:Brahmagupta.jpg|thumb|left|150px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Most scholars of history agree that Brahmagupta was born either in Multan or Sind, in medieval Pakistan. A minority believes he was born in Rajasthan.</div>]]
::::::::*'''Zero'''—The worlds oldest representation of the number zero (i.e. the symbol for ''"0"'') is to be found in ancient Pakistan.<ref name="bodlean">''[https://www.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/bodley/news/2017/sep-14 Carbon dating finds Bakhshali manuscript contains oldest recorded origins of the symbol 'zero']''. 14th September 2017. University of Oxford. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190909224855/https://www.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/bodley/news/2017/sep-14 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved September 9th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Hannah Devlin (14th September 2017).">Hannah Devlin (14th September 2017). ''[https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/sep/14/much-ado-about-nothing-ancient-indian-text-contains-earliest-zero-symbol Much ado about nothing: ancient Indian text contains earliest zero symbol]''. The Guardian. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190909230002/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/sep/14/much-ado-about-nothing-ancient-indian-text-contains-earliest-zero-symbol WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved September 9th, 2019.</ref> Evidence for this lies in an ancient manuscript called the ''"Bakhshali"'',<ref name="bodlean"/> which was discovered by chance by a farmer tending to his fields in 1881 during the reign of the British Raj (1857—1947), and subsequently brought to the attention of the British Indologist A. F. R. Hoernle (1841—1918<ref name="BrownBredin2005">Stuart Brown; Hugh Terence Bredin (August 2005). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uL3UAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA434&dq=A.F.R.+Hoernle+(1841%E2%80%941918&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjhl-iT6sTkAhWfQEEAHZ0sCNIQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=A.F.R.%20Hoernle%20(1841%E2%80%941918&f=false Dictionary of Twentieth-Century British Philosophers]''. A&C Black. p. 434. ISBN 978-1-84371-096-7.</ref>).<ref name="bodlean"/> The name of the manuscript itself, ''"Bakhshali"'', is named after the village from where it was found, 80 km<ref name="Selin2008">Helaine Selin (12 March 2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kt9DIY1g9HYC&lpg=RA1-PA1&pg=RA1-PA1&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures]''. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.</ref> from Peshawar.<ref name="bodlean"/> It was then transferred over to the United Kingdom in 1902 for safekeeping, and has since lain dormant at the University of Oxford (or more specifically at it's prestigious Bodleian Library).<ref name="bodlean"/><ref name="Hannah Devlin (14th September 2017)."/>
::::::::**Interestingly, the famous South Asian mathematician, Brahmagupta (598—668<ref name="Starr2015">S. Frederick Starr (2 June 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hWyYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA170&dq=Brahmagupta+598-668&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjKmsC_84blAhUJEcAKHSO7DqsQ6AEIQTAD#v=onepage&q=Brahmagupta%20598-668&f=false Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane]''. Princeton University Press. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-691-16585-1.</ref>), was born in (or near<ref name="Keith1928">Arthur Berriedale Keith (1928). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_GsaAQAAIAAJ&q=Brahmagupta+born+in+multan&dq=Brahmagupta+born+in+multan&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjis_O16IblAhUGilwKHQuTDS8Q6AEILzAB The Development and History of Sanskrit Literature]''. Sanjay Prakashan. p. 522. ISBN 978-81-7453-059-2.</ref><ref name="Verma1992">H. N. Verma (April 1992). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZlfQOHCdB_4C&q=Brahmagupta+born+in+multan&dq=Brahmagupta+born+in+multan&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjis_O16IblAhUGilwKHQuTDS8Q6AEITzAH 100 Great Indians Through the Ages]''. Gip Books. p. 103. ISBN 978-1-881155-00-3.</ref>) Multan, Punjab (modern-day Pakistan),<ref name="Carboni2011">Carboni, Alessandro (2011). ''[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13528160701398073?journalCode=rprs20 ABQ – From Quad to Zero Mathematical and choreographic processes –between number and not number]''. Performance Research. 12 (1): 50–56. doi:10.1080/13528160701398073. ISSN 1352-8165.</ref><ref name="Bhowmik Subrata (2010).">Bhowmik Subrata (2010). ''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305200319_GREAT_INDIAN_MATHEMATICIANS_OF_POST-CHRISTIAN_ERA GREAT INDIAN MATHEMATICIANS OF POST-CHRISTIAN ERA]''. Bulletin of Tripura Mathematical Society. XXX. 11-24. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191006043440/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305200319_GREAT_INDIAN_MATHEMATICIANS_OF_POST-CHRISTIAN_ERA WayBackMachine Link]'' ([http://archive.is/a7Ao0 Archive.is Link]). Retrieved October 6th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Joshi1988">Rasik Vihari Joshi (1988). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2aItAAAAMAAJ&q=Brahmagupta+born+in+multan&dq=Brahmagupta+born+in+multan&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjis_O16IblAhUGilwKHQuTDS8Q6AEIKTAA Studies in Indology: Prof. Rasik Vihari Joshi Felicitation Volume]''. Shree Publishing House. p. 110.</ref><ref name="Devi1939">Akshaya Kumari Devi (1939). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YQxAAAAAIAAJ&q=Brahmagupta+born+in+multan&dq=Brahmagupta+born+in+multan&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjis_O16IblAhUGilwKHQuTDS8Q6AEIWzAJ A History of Sanskrit Literature]''. Vijaya Krishna brothers. p. 124.</ref><ref name="Ghurye1957">Govind Sadashiv Ghurye (1957). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TyfXAAAAMAAJ&q=Brahmagupta+born+in+multan&dq=Brahmagupta+born+in+multan&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjyhuT96YblAhWkQEEAHZFkBJk4ChDoAQgyMAI Vidȳas: A Homage to Comte and a Contribution to Sociology of Knowledge]''. Indian Sociological Society. p. 66.</ref> or Bhillamala, Sind (modern-day Sindh, Pakistan).<ref name="YadavMohan2011">B.S. Yadav; Man Mohan (20 January 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?redir_esc=y&id=nwrw0Lv1vXIC&q=multan#v=onepage&q=Bhillamala%20&f=false Ancient Indian Leaps into Mathematics]''. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 185. ISBN 978-0-8176-4695-0.</ref><ref name="EmchSridharan2005">Gerard G. Emch; R. Sridharan; M. D. Srinivas (15 October 2005). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qfJdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA15&dq=Brahmagupta+was+born+Sind&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiR19v174blAhURQ8AKHYZFBvYQ6AEISjAF#v=onepage&q=Brahmagupta%20was%20born%20Sind&f=false Contributions to the History of Indian Mathematics]''. Hindustan Book Agency. p. 15. ISBN 978-93-86279-25-5.</ref><ref name="Bose1988">Mainak Kumar Bose (1988). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4dm1AAAAIAAJ&q=Brahmagupta+was+born+Sind&dq=Brahmagupta+was+born+Sind&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiR19v174blAhURQ8AKHYZFBvYQ6AEIVjAH Late classical India]''. A. Mukherjee & Co. p. 326.</ref> Others claim Abu, Rajasthan (modern-day India).<ref name="Ghurye1957"/><ref name="Pillai1997">S. Devadas Pillai (1997). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P3uD22Ghqs4C&pg=PA216&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Indian Sociology Through Ghurye, a Dictionary]''. Popular Prakashan. p. 216. ISBN 978-81-7154-807-1.</ref> 
::::::::***In the history of mathematics however he is known as ''"Brahmagupta of Multan"'' or ''"Brahmagupta of Sind"'', who is known to have popularised the use of zero hundreds of years after its conception.<ref name="Carboni2011"/><ref name="Cooke2011">Roger L. Cooke (14 February 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wOGh7XPowAMC&pg=PA25&lpg=PA25&dq=Brahmagupta+was+born+in+pakistan&source=bl&ots=GZWo-zFATF&sig=ACfU3U3Gsy6ybK3SLM7AFBUizFUgL5EOow&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj7mfLk7oblAhW1olwKHUmHC9sQ6AEwEHoECAsQAQ#v=onepage&q=Brahmagupta%20was%20born%20in%20pakistan&f=false The History of Mathematics: A Brief Course]''. John Wiley & Sons. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-118-03024-0.</ref> However, at some point he moved to Ujjain (modern-day Madhya Pradesh) where he lived and worked.<ref name="Pillai1997"/> To the Chinese he was known as ''"Pi-lo-mo-lo"''.<ref name="YadavMohan2011"/> His contributions themselves were popularised by al-Biruni (973—1048).<ref name="Borceux2013">Francis Borceux (31 October 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MOK9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA167&dq=Brahmagupta+598-668&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjKmsC_84blAhUJEcAKHSO7DqsQ6AEISDAE#v=onepage&q=Brahmagupta%20598-668&f=false An Axiomatic Approach to Geometry: Geometric Trilogy I]''. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 167. ISBN 978-3-319-01730-3.</ref>
::::::::**Prior to the discovery of the manuscript, it was thought the earliest depiction of zero as a symbol was first developed in modern-day India, as the earliest use was found in a 9th century inscription on the wall of a temple in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh.<ref name="bodlean"/> According to the University of Oxford, ''"[t]he findings are highly significant for the study of the early history of mathematics"'' as the newer evidence predates the use of zero by at least five centuries. <ref name="bodlean"/>
::::::::***One of the reasons why this wasn't known until only recently is perhaps because the manuscripts used to depict zero were made out of birch bark—a natural biodegradable perishable material that was extensively used in the medieval age (especially in ancient Buddhist Pakistan) prior to the invention of paper in China and its subsequent spread by the Sogdians (Iranian nomads) and Arabs (Abbasids) in the 8th century, after the '''''[[Battle of Talas (751)]]'''''.
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'''[[#Astronomy & Universe (4)|Astronomy]]''' •
'''[[#Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)|Agriculture, Food & Beverage]]''' •
'''[[#Biology (2)|Biology]]''' (''[[#Paleontology (10)|Paleontology]]'') •
'''[[#Chemistry (5)|Chemistry]]''' •
'''[[#Computing (4)|Computing]]''' (''[[#Video-gaming (1)|Video-gaming]] • [[#Board Games (1)|Board-games]]'') •
'''[[#Mathematics (3)|Mathematics]]''' •
'''[[#Medicines (1)|Medicine]]''' (''[[#Disease Eradication (1)|Disease Eradication]]'' • ''[[#Genetics & Disease (5)|Genetics & Disease]]'' • ''[[#Medical Instruments (6)|Instruments]]'') •
'''[[#Physics (5)|Physics]]''' •
'''Engineering''' (''[[#Naval Engineering (1)|Naval]]'' • ''[[#Mechanical Engineering (7)|Mechanical]]'' • ''[[#Handtool Engineering (3)|Handtool]]'' • ''[[#Textile Engineering (3)|Textile]]'' (''[[#Clothing (2)|Clothing]]'') • ''[[#Architectural Engineering (4)|Architectural]]'') •
'''[[#Sport & Recreation (2)|Sport & Recreation]]''' •
'''[[#Disputed (2)|Disputed]]''' •
[[#Further Reading|Further Reading]] •
[[#Sources|Sources]] •
(''[[#Footnotes|Footnotes]]'' • ''[[#References|References]]'' • ''[[#Acknowledgements|Acknowledgements]]'') •
[[#External Links|External Links]] •
'''''Total Inventions & Discoveries Listed: 77'''''
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete.''
[[File:Aziz-Mackenzie Model.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:70%;">The Aziz—Mackenzie Model.<ref name="Marcus Strom (May 15th, 2016).">Marcus Strom (May 15th, 2016). ''[https://www.smh.com.au/technology/fair-allocation-algorithm-that-cuts-cakes-and-may-settle-trump-divorces-20160503-gokmwt.html Fair allocation: Algorithm that cuts cakes and may settle Trump divorces]''. Sydney Morning Herald. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010215455/https://www.smh.com.au/technology/fair-allocation-algorithm-that-cuts-cakes-and-may-settle-trump-divorces-20160503-gokmwt.html?js-chunk-not-found-refresh=true WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref></div>]]
*'''Aziz—MacKenzie Model'''—In 2016,<ref group="n.">Haris Aziz, Simon Mackenzie (13th April 2016). ''[https://arxiv.org/abs/1604.03655 A Discrete and Bounded Envy-Free Cake Cutting Protocol for Any Number of Agents]''. Cornell University. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010215705/https://arxiv.org/abs/1604.03655 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref> Haris Aziz (c. 1981—Present<ref group="n.">According to a October 13th, 2016 publication of ''"Scientific American"'', Aziz is stated to be 35 years old, and MacKenzie 27 years old.
:::'''Quote''': ''"Haris Aziz, a 35-year-old computer scientist at the University of New South Wales and Data61, a data research group in Australia...27-year-old Simon Mackenzie, a postdoctoral researcher at Carnegie Mellon"''.
#Erica Klarreich (October 13th, 2016). ''[https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-mathematics-of-cake-cutting/ The Mathematics of Cake Cutting]''. Scientific American. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191011001104/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-mathematics-of-cake-cutting/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 11th, 2019.</ref>) and Simon Mackenzie (c. 1989—Present<ref group="n.">According to a October 13th, 2016 publication of ''"Scientific American"'', Aziz is stated to be 35 years old, and MacKenzie 27 years old.
:::'''Quote''': ''"Haris Aziz, a 35-year-old computer scientist at the University of New South Wales and Data61, a data research group in Australia...27-year-old Simon Mackenzie, a postdoctoral researcher at Carnegie Mellon"''.
#Erica Klarreich (October 13th, 2016). ''[https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-mathematics-of-cake-cutting/ The Mathematics of Cake Cutting]''. Scientific American. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191011001104/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-mathematics-of-cake-cutting/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 11th, 2019.</ref>) were the first to solve a complex mathematical problem in game theory known as ''"[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envy-free_cake-cutting envy-free caking cutting]"'' (which was previously thought impossible to solve<ref name="Ali Ahmed (May 24th, 2016).">Ali Ahmed (May 24th, 2016). ''[https://www.brecorder.com/2016/05/24/297905/pakistani-mathematician-solved-one-of-the-biggest-maths-problems/ Pakistani Mathematician solved one of the biggest Maths problems]''. Business Recorder. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010214907/https://www.brecorder.com/2016/05/24/297905/pakistani-mathematician-solved-one-of-the-biggest-maths-problems/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref>). The problem describes a scenario where a limited (non-symmetrical<ref name="Andrew Silver (August 5th, 2016).">Andrew Silver (August 5th, 2016). ''[https://www.insidescience.org/news/how-cut-cake-according-math How To Cut Cake, According To Math]''. Inside Science. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191011002657/https://www.insidescience.org/news/how-cut-cake-according-math WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 11th, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">In order to under the non-symmetrical nature of the problem, it must be understood like this;
:::'''Quote''': ''"In theory, the work of Aziz and co-author Simon Mackenzie could be used to mete out contested items like family art collections or even fishing rights in international waters. Aziz studies an area of economics known as fair division, which includes researching how to divide resources so that participants are not envious of one another. While equal portions are perhaps the obvious solution, they aren't always the answer. Different people might value some portions more or less than others. Imagine, for example, a sheet cake laden with chocolate chips and strawberries on the center but with only a sparse sprinkling of pecans on the corners. To divide such a cake between two people in an envy-free manner, one person could cut the cake into two pieces he or she finds equally desirable and then let the other person pick a favorite. The more people participating, the more chances for envy to sneak in."''
#Andrew Silver (August 5th, 2016). ''[https://www.insidescience.org/news/how-cut-cake-according-math How To Cut Cake, According To Math]''. Inside Science. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191011002657/https://www.insidescience.org/news/how-cut-cake-according-math WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 11th, 2019.</ref>) resource (such as a ''"cake"'', ''"time, property settlement, or computing resource"''<ref name="Sunehra Mehmood (May 27th, 2016).">Sunehra Mehmood (May 27th, 2016). ''[https://tribune.com.pk/story/1108666/pakistani-makes-major-breakthrough-longstanding-mathematics-problem/ Pakistani makes major breakthrough in longstanding mathematics problem]''. The Tribune. ''[http://archive.is/TpEy1 Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref>) must be shared equally with an infinite number of people. To put it into simple terms, it is also known as ''"cake cutting"'' theory where each person must end up ''"with a fair share"''. Whilst this may sound banal, it is actually ''extremely'' complicated (see this<ref name="Haris Aziz, Simon MacKenzie 13th April 2016">Haris Aziz, Simon MacKenzie (Submitted 13th April 2016; Accepted 27th August 2017). ''[https://arxiv.org/pdf/1604.03655.pdf A Discrete and Bounded Envy-free Cake Cutting Protocol for Any Number of Agents]''. Cornell University. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010215554/https://arxiv.org/pdf/1604.03655.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Haris Aziz, Simon Mackenzie (Unknown Date).">Haris Aziz, Simon Mackenzie (Unknown Date). ''[http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~haziz/efcake_slides.pdf A Discrete and Bounded Envy-free Cake Cutting Protocol for Any Number of Agents]''. University of New South Wales (Data61, CSIRO and UNSW). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010222936/http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~haziz/efcake_slides.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref>) as it involves a series of complicated steps to achieve true resource equality.
**Some mathematicians believe the algorithm—although it solves the problem—may be too complicated to apply practically. Aziz somehwat agrees, saying ''"[n]ot only is the algorithm complex but the number of steps it takes to get the job done can be too high in the worst case. So our result should be viewed as a mathematical result rather than a practical engineering result...[h]aving said that, many experts previously thought that there was no algorithm that takes a bounded number of steps or cuts even for four persons. Now that we have a bounded algorithm, it provides hope to refine the ideas to get better bounds. Some of the mathematical ideas and algorithmic techniques may be useful for other problems"''.<ref name="Sunehra Mehmood (May 27th, 2016)."/>

[[File:Hdi.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;font-size:70%;">HDI.</div>]]
*'''Human Development Index (HDI)'''—Mahbub ul Haq (1934—1998<ref name="Clark2006">David Clark (2006). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kUerTqCKydAC&pg=PA213&dq=Mahbub+ul+Haq+(1934%E2%80%941998)&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiUhsjRioXjAhXcUxUIHSJfB00Q6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=Mahbub%20ul%20Haq%20(1934%E2%80%941998)&f=false The Elgar Companion to Development Studies]''. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 213. ISBN 978-1-84720-286-4.</ref>) was the first to invent the HDI in 1990.<ref name="Prescott-Allen2001"/><ref name="Quinn2017">Riley Quinn (5 July 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=akkrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32&dq=Haq+devised+the+Human+Development+Index&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjd99bujIXjAhXhRxUIHeiNCOIQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Haq%20devised%20the%20Human%20Development%20Index&f=false Reflections on Human Development]''. CRC Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-1-351-35099-0.</ref><ref name="MirakhorAskari2010">A. Mirakhor; H. Askari (18 August 2010). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Al3FAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA33&dq=Haq+devised+the+Human+Development+Index&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwitzM23jYXjAhVNUMAKHYh4A1QQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=Haq%20devised%20the%20Human%20Development%20Index&f=false Islam and the Path to Human and Economic Development]''. Springer. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-230-11001-4.</ref><ref name="Baru, Sanjaya (1998).">Baru, Sanjaya (1998). ''[www.jstor.org/stable/4407121. Mahbub Ul Haq and Human Development: A Tribute]''. Economic and Political Weekly. Vol. 33. No. 35. pp. 2275–2279. Retrieved June 25th, 2019.</ref> While he was working on the development of the HDI itself, some were sceptical of its usefulness, but Haq pushed forward and insisted that only a single number could shift the attention of economic policy makers from ''"material output to human well-being as a measure of progress"''.<ref name="Ghosh2008">Ed. Robin Ghosh (2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=D3fYk6cgzigC&pg=PA12&dq=Haq+devised+the+Human+Development+Index&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjd99bujIXjAhXhRxUIHeiNCOIQ6AEIUjAH#v=onepage&q=Haq%20devised%20the%20Human%20Development%20Index&f=false Development Studies]''. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 12. ISBN 978-81-269-0935-3.</ref> Despite his idea courting controversy amongst economists the world over,<ref name="Baru, Sanjaya (1998)."/> he was later proven right, and ultimately it was adopted as a valuable economic metric. In 2010 the HDI was further improved with a few changes.
**The ''"Barometer of Sustainability"'' was later directly inspired by the work of Haq.<ref name="Prescott-Allen2001">Robert Prescott-Allen (2001). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9oIMBp0uH-sC&pg=PR21&dq=Haq+devised+the+Human+Development+Index&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjd99bujIXjAhXhRxUIHeiNCOIQ6AEIXjAJ#v=onepage&q=Haq&f=false The Wellbeing of Nations]''. Island Press. p. XXI. ISBN 978-1-59726-350-4.</ref> Haq was also the architect of the ''"World Development Report"'' for the World Bank.<ref name="Baru, Sanjaya (1998)."/> Between 1982 and 1988 he served as the several roles as minister, including in Finance, Commerce and Planning.<ref name="Baru, Sanjaya (1998)."/> He also actively helped fund the ''[[Project-706/726 Pakistani Nuclear Weapons Project|Project-706/726 Pakistani Nuclear Weapons Project|Project-706/726 (Pakistani Nuclear Weapons Project)|Pakistani nuclear bomb project]]'' (c. 1974—c. 1998).<ref name="Baru, Sanjaya (1998)."/> The project itself were very secret, and ultimately cemented Pakistan's position as a nuclear scientific powerhouse. He was succeeded by his wife—Khadija—and two children—Toneema and Farhan—after his death in 1998.<ref name="Clark2006p218">David Clark (2006). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kUerTqCKydAC&pg=PA218&dq=mahbub+ul+haq+human+development+index&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjc9bG4hYXjAhWVrHEKHaW0BEYQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=mahbub%20ul%20haq%20human%20development%20index&f=false The Elgar Companion to Development Studies]''. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 218. ISBN 978-1-84720-286-4.</ref>

[[File:Brahmagupta.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Most scholars of history agree that Brahmagupta was born either in Multan or Sind, in medieval Pakistan. A minority believes he was born in Rajasthan.</div>]]
*'''Zero'''—The worlds oldest representation of the number zero (i.e. the symbol for ''"0"'') is to be found in ancient Pakistan.<ref name="bodlean">''[https://www.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/bodley/news/2017/sep-14 Carbon dating finds Bakhshali manuscript contains oldest recorded origins of the symbol 'zero']''. 14th September 2017. University of Oxford. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190909224855/https://www.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/bodley/news/2017/sep-14 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved September 9th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Hannah Devlin (14th September 2017).">Hannah Devlin (14th September 2017). ''[https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/sep/14/much-ado-about-nothing-ancient-indian-text-contains-earliest-zero-symbol Much ado about nothing: ancient Indian text contains earliest zero symbol]''. The Guardian. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190909230002/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/sep/14/much-ado-about-nothing-ancient-indian-text-contains-earliest-zero-symbol WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved September 9th, 2019.</ref> Evidence for this lies in an ancient manuscript called the ''"Bakhshali"'',<ref name="bodlean"/> which was discovered by chance by a farmer tending to his fields in 1881 during the reign of the British Raj (1857—1947), and subsequently brought to the attention of the British Indologist A. F. R. Hoernle (1841—1918<ref name="BrownBredin2005">Stuart Brown; Hugh Terence Bredin (August 2005). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uL3UAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA434&dq=A.F.R.+Hoernle+(1841%E2%80%941918&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjhl-iT6sTkAhWfQEEAHZ0sCNIQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=A.F.R.%20Hoernle%20(1841%E2%80%941918&f=false Dictionary of Twentieth-Century British Philosophers]''. A&C Black. p. 434. ISBN 978-1-84371-096-7.</ref>).<ref name="bodlean"/> The name of the manuscript itself, ''"Bakhshali"'', is named after the village from where it was found, 80 km<ref name="Selin2008">Helaine Selin (12 March 2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kt9DIY1g9HYC&lpg=RA1-PA1&pg=RA1-PA1&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures]''. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.</ref> from Peshawar.<ref name="bodlean"/> It was then transferred over to the United Kingdom in 1902 for safekeeping, and has since lain dormant at the University of Oxford (or more specifically at it's prestigious Bodleian Library).<ref name="bodlean"/><ref name="Hannah Devlin (14th September 2017)."/>
**Interestingly, the famous South Asian mathematician, Brahmagupta (598—668<ref name="Starr2015">S. Frederick Starr (2 June 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hWyYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA170&dq=Brahmagupta+598-668&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjKmsC_84blAhUJEcAKHSO7DqsQ6AEIQTAD#v=onepage&q=Brahmagupta%20598-668&f=false Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane]''. Princeton University Press. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-691-16585-1.</ref>), was born in (or near<ref name="Keith1928">Arthur Berriedale Keith (1928). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_GsaAQAAIAAJ&q=Brahmagupta+born+in+multan&dq=Brahmagupta+born+in+multan&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjis_O16IblAhUGilwKHQuTDS8Q6AEILzAB The Development and History of Sanskrit Literature]''. Sanjay Prakashan. p. 522. ISBN 978-81-7453-059-2.</ref><ref name="Verma1992">H. N. Verma (April 1992). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZlfQOHCdB_4C&q=Brahmagupta+born+in+multan&dq=Brahmagupta+born+in+multan&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjis_O16IblAhUGilwKHQuTDS8Q6AEITzAH 100 Great Indians Through the Ages]''. Gip Books. p. 103. ISBN 978-1-881155-00-3.</ref>) Multan, Punjab (modern-day Pakistan),<ref name="Carboni2011">Carboni, Alessandro (2011). ''[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13528160701398073?journalCode=rprs20 ABQ – From Quad to Zero Mathematical and choreographic processes –between number and not number]''. Performance Research. 12 (1): 50–56. doi:10.1080/13528160701398073. ISSN 1352-8165.</ref><ref name="Bhowmik Subrata (2010).">Bhowmik Subrata (2010). ''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305200319_GREAT_INDIAN_MATHEMATICIANS_OF_POST-CHRISTIAN_ERA GREAT INDIAN MATHEMATICIANS OF POST-CHRISTIAN ERA]''. Bulletin of Tripura Mathematical Society. XXX. 11-24. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191006043440/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305200319_GREAT_INDIAN_MATHEMATICIANS_OF_POST-CHRISTIAN_ERA WayBackMachine Link]'' ([http://archive.is/a7Ao0 Archive.is Link]). Retrieved October 6th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Joshi1988">Rasik Vihari Joshi (1988). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2aItAAAAMAAJ&q=Brahmagupta+born+in+multan&dq=Brahmagupta+born+in+multan&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjis_O16IblAhUGilwKHQuTDS8Q6AEIKTAA Studies in Indology: Prof. Rasik Vihari Joshi Felicitation Volume]''. Shree Publishing House. p. 110.</ref><ref name="Devi1939">Akshaya Kumari Devi (1939). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YQxAAAAAIAAJ&q=Brahmagupta+born+in+multan&dq=Brahmagupta+born+in+multan&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjis_O16IblAhUGilwKHQuTDS8Q6AEIWzAJ A History of Sanskrit Literature]''. Vijaya Krishna brothers. p. 124.</ref><ref name="Ghurye1957">Govind Sadashiv Ghurye (1957). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TyfXAAAAMAAJ&q=Brahmagupta+born+in+multan&dq=Brahmagupta+born+in+multan&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjyhuT96YblAhWkQEEAHZFkBJk4ChDoAQgyMAI Vidȳas: A Homage to Comte and a Contribution to Sociology of Knowledge]''. Indian Sociological Society. p. 66.</ref> or Bhillamala, Sind (modern-day Sindh, Pakistan).<ref name="YadavMohan2011">B.S. Yadav; Man Mohan (20 January 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?redir_esc=y&id=nwrw0Lv1vXIC&q=multan#v=onepage&q=Bhillamala%20&f=false Ancient Indian Leaps into Mathematics]''. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 185. ISBN 978-0-8176-4695-0.</ref><ref name="EmchSridharan2005">Gerard G. Emch; R. Sridharan; M. D. Srinivas (15 October 2005). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qfJdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA15&dq=Brahmagupta+was+born+Sind&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiR19v174blAhURQ8AKHYZFBvYQ6AEISjAF#v=onepage&q=Brahmagupta%20was%20born%20Sind&f=false Contributions to the History of Indian Mathematics]''. Hindustan Book Agency. p. 15. ISBN 978-93-86279-25-5.</ref><ref name="Bose1988">Mainak Kumar Bose (1988). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4dm1AAAAIAAJ&q=Brahmagupta+was+born+Sind&dq=Brahmagupta+was+born+Sind&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiR19v174blAhURQ8AKHYZFBvYQ6AEIVjAH Late classical India]''. A. Mukherjee & Co. p. 326.</ref> Others claim Abu, Rajasthan (modern-day India).<ref name="Ghurye1957"/><ref name="Pillai1997">S. Devadas Pillai (1997). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P3uD22Ghqs4C&pg=PA216&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Indian Sociology Through Ghurye, a Dictionary]''. Popular Prakashan. p. 216. ISBN 978-81-7154-807-1.</ref> 
***In the history of mathematics however he is known as ''"Brahmagupta of Multan"'' or ''"Brahmagupta of Sind"'', who is known to have popularised the use of zero hundreds of years after its conception.<ref name="Carboni2011"/><ref name="Cooke2011">Roger L. Cooke (14 February 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wOGh7XPowAMC&pg=PA25&lpg=PA25&dq=Brahmagupta+was+born+in+pakistan&source=bl&ots=GZWo-zFATF&sig=ACfU3U3Gsy6ybK3SLM7AFBUizFUgL5EOow&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj7mfLk7oblAhW1olwKHUmHC9sQ6AEwEHoECAsQAQ#v=onepage&q=Brahmagupta%20was%20born%20in%20pakistan&f=false The History of Mathematics: A Brief Course]''. John Wiley & Sons. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-118-03024-0.</ref> However, at some point he moved to Ujjain (modern-day Madhya Pradesh) where he lived and worked.<ref name="Pillai1997"/> To the Chinese he was known as ''"Pi-lo-mo-lo"''.<ref name="YadavMohan2011"/> His contributions themselves were popularised by al-Biruni (973—1048).<ref name="Borceux2013">Francis Borceux (31 October 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MOK9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA167&dq=Brahmagupta+598-668&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjKmsC_84blAhUJEcAKHSO7DqsQ6AEISDAE#v=onepage&q=Brahmagupta%20598-668&f=false An Axiomatic Approach to Geometry: Geometric Trilogy I]''. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 167. ISBN 978-3-319-01730-3.</ref>
**Prior to the discovery of the manuscript, it was thought the earliest depiction of zero as a symbol was first developed in modern-day India, as the earliest use was found in a 9th century inscription on the wall of a temple in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh.<ref name="bodlean"/> According to the University of Oxford, ''"[t]he findings are highly significant for the study of the early history of mathematics"'' as the newer evidence predates the use of zero by at least five centuries. <ref name="bodlean"/>
***One of the reasons why this wasn't known until only recently is perhaps because the manuscripts used to depict zero were made out of birch bark—a natural biodegradable perishable material that was extensively used in the medieval age (especially in ancient Buddhist Pakistan) prior to the invention of paper in China and its subsequent spread by the Sogdians (Iranian nomads) and Arabs (Abbasids) in the 8th century, after the '''''[[Battle of Talas (751)]]'''''.
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===Medicines (1)===
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[List of Inventions and Discoveries in Medicine During the Islamic Golden Age|List of Inventions and Discoveries in Medicine During the Islamic Golden Age]]'''''
[[File:C3nj01076g-f1 hi-res.jpg|thumb|left|200px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;font-size:70%;">Yar was the first to discover the angiogenic properties of 2-deoxy-D-ribose in 2017, which has the ability to repair even impossible to heal ulcers, wounds, cuts and abrasions such as those found in diabetic patients (particularly diabetic foot).</div>]]
::::::::::*'''Deoxyribose Bandage'''—Muhammed Yar (19??—Present) was the first to discover the healing properties of a sugar known as 2-deoxy-D-ribose in 2017<ref name="universityofsheffieldsugar1"/><ref name="sciencedailysugar1"/><ref name="YarShahzadi2017">Yar, Muhammad; Shahzadi, Lubna; Mehmood, Azra; Raheem, Muhammad Imran; Román, Sabiniano; Chaudhry, Aqif Anwar; ur Rehman, Ihtesham; Ian Douglas, C.W.; MacNeil, Sheila (2017). ''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352492817302581?via%3Dihub Deoxy-sugar releasing biodegradable hydrogels promote angiogenesis and stimulate wound healing]''. Materials Today Communications. 13: 295–305. doi:10.1016/j.mtcomm.2017.10.015. ISSN 2352-4928.</ref><ref name="medicalbrief">''[https://www.medicalbrief.co.za/archives/sugar-hydrogel-dressing-speed-wound-healing/ Sugar and hydrogel dressing to speed wound healing]''. January 10th, 2018. Medical Brief. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191128070407/https://www.medicalbrief.co.za/archives/sugar-hydrogel-dressing-speed-wound-healing/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved November 28th, 2019.</ref> (the sugar itself was first discovered by Takajiro Mori<ref name="Bechtel2006">William Bechtel (2006). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WrEquK3hoDwC&pg=PA171&dq=Deoxyribose+Phoebus+Levene+1929&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjimfe_nqnkAhXWi1wKHcsDBxwQ6AEIRjAE#v=onepage&q=Deoxyribose%20Phoebus%20Levene%201929&f=false Discovering Cell Mechanisms: The Creation of Modern Cell Biology]''. Cambridge University Press. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-521-81247-4.</ref> (????—????) and Phoebus Levene<ref name="Hutton2001">Keith B. Hutton (2001). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uOPlljgUQtcC&pg=PA47&dq=Deoxyribose+Phoebus+Levene+1929&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjimfe_nqnkAhXWi1wKHcsDBxwQ6AEITTAF#v=onepage&q=Deoxyribose%20Phoebus%20Levene%201929&f=false Chemistry]''. Taylor & Francis. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-57958-359-0.</ref> (1869—1940) in 1929).<ref name="universityofsheffieldsugar1">''[https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/news/nr/sheffield-engineers-sugar-good-for-you-1.745914 Sheffield engineers discover some sugars are good for you]''. 16th November 2017. University of Sheffield. ''[http://archive.is/wMkUh Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved August 20th, 2019.</ref> 
::::::::::**Yar found that it accelerated a process known as angiogensisis, which is the process where new blood vessels form, observing the process ''"during his research to understand how tumours stimulate new blood vessels"'' and eventually discovering ''"that a naturally occurring sugar (2-deoxy-D-ribose) increased when tumours encouraged new blood vessels to be made"''.<ref name="universityofsheffieldsugar1"/> 
::::::::::***It should be noted that 2-deoxy-D-ribose is one of the two parts of a DNA molecule (the other being the bases).<ref name="Dewick2013">Paul M. Dewick (20 March 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RrKgfuRwsqsC&pg=PA550&dq=2-deoxy-D-ribose+one+of+two+parts&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjSnYiKoankAhUEYcAKHdUFCw4Q6AEIUDAF#v=onepage&q=2-deoxy-D-ribose%20one%20of%20two%20parts&f=false Essentials of Organic Chemistry: For Students of Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry and Biological Chemistry]''. John Wiley & Sons. p. 550. ISBN 978-1-118-68196-1.</ref> By using this specific sugar in the healing process Yar and his team were able to invent and patent a new design of bandages containing the new ingredient.<ref name="Suhail Yusuf (August 18th, 2019).">Suhail Yusuf (August 18th, 2019). ''[https://tribune.com.pk/story/2036303/1-sweet-miracle-diabetes-patients/ A ‘sweet’ miracle for diabetes patients]''. The Tribune. ''[http://archive.is/zkDgK Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved August 20th, 2019.</ref>
::::::::::**The sugars are conjugated with hydrogels in alginate plasters and actively negate the use of very expensive growth factors.<ref name="sciencedailysugar1">''[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/11/171116092536.htm Some sugars are good for you, engineers discover]''. Science Daily. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190217012233/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/11/171116092536.htm WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved August 20th, 2019.</ref> Furthermore the ''L-'' and ''D-'' isomeric strains of 2-deoxy-D-ribose were unable to have been broken down by certain natural strains of bacteria found on the skin (namely ''staph. aureus'') further reinforcing its long-term durability without necessity of causing, or worsening, infections found in open wounds.<ref name="YarShahzadi2017"/> 
::::::::::**The bandages are particularly useful in treating diabetic skin ulcerations such as diabetic foot, but will also be useful for other cuts and abrasions in general.<ref name="PPI (October 24th, 2018).">PPI (October 24th, 2018). ''[https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2018/10/24/cost-effective-skin-grafts-constructed-to-treat-chronic-burns-ulcers/ Cost effective skin grafts constructed to treat chronic burns, ulcers]''. Pakistan Today. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190820200858/https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2018/10/24/cost-effective-skin-grafts-constructed-to-treat-chronic-burns-ulcers/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved August 20th, 2019.</ref> The research was driven by the ''"Technology Development Fund"'' (TDF) of the ''"Higher Education Commission"'' (HEC) of Pakistan.<ref name="AzamDikici2019">Azam, Maryam; Dikici, Serkan; Roman, Sabiniano; Mehmood, Azra; Chaudhry, Aqif A; U Rehman, Ihtesham; MacNeil, Sheila; Yar, Muhammad (2019). ''[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0885328219859991?journalCode=jbaa Addition of 2-deoxy-d-ribose to clinically used alginate dressings stimulates angiogenesis and accelerates wound healing in diabetic rats]''. Journal of Biomaterials Applications: 088532821985999. doi:10.1177/0885328219859991. ISSN 0885-3282.</ref>
::::::::::***The patent for the invention is held by both the COMSATS University Islamabad and the University of Sheffield.<ref name="patent">''[https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/materials/news/woundhealingsugars-1.743683 Breakthrough research shows sugar can be good for you.]''. November 6th, 2017. Sheffield Department of Materials Science and Engineering. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191128070733/https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/materials/news/woundhealingsugars-1.743683 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved November 28th, 2019.</ref>
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'''[[#Astronomy & Universe (4)|Astronomy]]''' •
'''[[#Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)|Agriculture, Food & Beverage]]''' •
'''[[#Biology (2)|Biology]]''' (''[[#Paleontology (10)|Paleontology]]'') •
'''[[#Chemistry (5)|Chemistry]]''' •
'''[[#Computing (4)|Computing]]''' (''[[#Video-gaming (1)|Video-gaming]] • [[#Board Games (1)|Board-games]]'') •
'''[[#Mathematics (3)|Mathematics]]''' •
'''[[#Medicines (1)|Medicine]]''' (''[[#Disease Eradication (1)|Disease Eradication]]'' • ''[[#Genetics & Disease (5)|Genetics & Disease]]'' • ''[[#Medical Instruments (6)|Instruments]]'') •
'''[[#Physics (5)|Physics]]''' •
'''Engineering''' (''[[#Naval Engineering (1)|Naval]]'' • ''[[#Mechanical Engineering (7)|Mechanical]]'' • ''[[#Handtool Engineering (3)|Handtool]]'' • ''[[#Textile Engineering (3)|Textile]]'' (''[[#Clothing (2)|Clothing]]'') • ''[[#Architectural Engineering (4)|Architectural]]'') •
'''[[#Sport & Recreation (2)|Sport & Recreation]]''' •
'''[[#Disputed (2)|Disputed]]''' •
[[#Further Reading|Further Reading]] •
[[#Sources|Sources]] •
(''[[#Footnotes|Footnotes]]'' • ''[[#References|References]]'' • ''[[#Acknowledgements|Acknowledgements]]'') •
[[#External Links|External Links]] •
'''''Total Inventions & Discoveries Listed: 77'''''
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[List of Inventions and Discoveries in Medicine During the Islamic Golden Age|List of Inventions and Discoveries in Medicine During the Islamic Golden Age]]'''''
[[File:C3nj01076g-f1 hi-res.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;font-size:70%;">Yar was the first to discover the angiogenic properties of 2-deoxy-D-ribose in 2017, which has the ability to repair even impossible to heal ulcers, wounds, cuts and abrasions such as those found in diabetic patients (particularly diabetic foot).</div>]]
*'''Deoxyribose Bandage'''—Muhammed Yar (19??—Present) was the first to discover the healing properties of a sugar known as 2-deoxy-D-ribose in 2017<ref name="universityofsheffieldsugar1"/><ref name="sciencedailysugar1"/><ref name="YarShahzadi2017">Yar, Muhammad; Shahzadi, Lubna; Mehmood, Azra; Raheem, Muhammad Imran; Román, Sabiniano; Chaudhry, Aqif Anwar; ur Rehman, Ihtesham; Ian Douglas, C.W.; MacNeil, Sheila (2017). ''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352492817302581?via%3Dihub Deoxy-sugar releasing biodegradable hydrogels promote angiogenesis and stimulate wound healing]''. Materials Today Communications. 13: 295–305. doi:10.1016/j.mtcomm.2017.10.015. ISSN 2352-4928.</ref><ref name="medicalbrief">''[https://www.medicalbrief.co.za/archives/sugar-hydrogel-dressing-speed-wound-healing/ Sugar and hydrogel dressing to speed wound healing]''. January 10th, 2018. Medical Brief. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191128070407/https://www.medicalbrief.co.za/archives/sugar-hydrogel-dressing-speed-wound-healing/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved November 28th, 2019.</ref> (the sugar itself was first discovered by Takajiro Mori<ref name="Bechtel2006">William Bechtel (2006). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WrEquK3hoDwC&pg=PA171&dq=Deoxyribose+Phoebus+Levene+1929&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjimfe_nqnkAhXWi1wKHcsDBxwQ6AEIRjAE#v=onepage&q=Deoxyribose%20Phoebus%20Levene%201929&f=false Discovering Cell Mechanisms: The Creation of Modern Cell Biology]''. Cambridge University Press. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-521-81247-4.</ref> (????—????) and Phoebus Levene<ref name="Hutton2001">Keith B. Hutton (2001). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uOPlljgUQtcC&pg=PA47&dq=Deoxyribose+Phoebus+Levene+1929&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjimfe_nqnkAhXWi1wKHcsDBxwQ6AEITTAF#v=onepage&q=Deoxyribose%20Phoebus%20Levene%201929&f=false Chemistry]''. Taylor & Francis. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-57958-359-0.</ref> (1869—1940) in 1929).<ref name="universityofsheffieldsugar1">''[https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/news/nr/sheffield-engineers-sugar-good-for-you-1.745914 Sheffield engineers discover some sugars are good for you]''. 16th November 2017. University of Sheffield. ''[http://archive.is/wMkUh Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved August 20th, 2019.</ref> 
**Yar found that it accelerated a process known as angiogensisis, which is the process where new blood vessels form, observing the process ''"during his research to understand how tumours stimulate new blood vessels"'' and eventually discovering ''"that a naturally occurring sugar (2-deoxy-D-ribose) increased when tumours encouraged new blood vessels to be made"''.<ref name="universityofsheffieldsugar1"/> 
***It should be noted that 2-deoxy-D-ribose is one of the two parts of a DNA molecule (the other being the bases).<ref name="Dewick2013">Paul M. Dewick (20 March 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RrKgfuRwsqsC&pg=PA550&dq=2-deoxy-D-ribose+one+of+two+parts&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjSnYiKoankAhUEYcAKHdUFCw4Q6AEIUDAF#v=onepage&q=2-deoxy-D-ribose%20one%20of%20two%20parts&f=false Essentials of Organic Chemistry: For Students of Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry and Biological Chemistry]''. John Wiley & Sons. p. 550. ISBN 978-1-118-68196-1.</ref> By using this specific sugar in the healing process Yar and his team were able to invent and patent a new design of bandages containing the new ingredient.<ref name="Suhail Yusuf (August 18th, 2019).">Suhail Yusuf (August 18th, 2019). ''[https://tribune.com.pk/story/2036303/1-sweet-miracle-diabetes-patients/ A ‘sweet’ miracle for diabetes patients]''. The Tribune. ''[http://archive.is/zkDgK Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved August 20th, 2019.</ref>
**The sugars are conjugated with hydrogels in alginate plasters and actively negate the use of very expensive growth factors.<ref name="sciencedailysugar1">''[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/11/171116092536.htm Some sugars are good for you, engineers discover]''. Science Daily. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190217012233/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/11/171116092536.htm WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved August 20th, 2019.</ref> Furthermore the ''L-'' and ''D-'' isomeric strains of 2-deoxy-D-ribose were unable to have been broken down by certain natural strains of bacteria found on the skin (namely ''staph. aureus'') further reinforcing its long-term durability without necessity of causing, or worsening, infections found in open wounds.<ref name="YarShahzadi2017"/> 
**The bandages are particularly useful in treating diabetic skin ulcerations such as diabetic foot, but will also be useful for other cuts and abrasions in general.<ref name="PPI (October 24th, 2018).">PPI (October 24th, 2018). ''[https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2018/10/24/cost-effective-skin-grafts-constructed-to-treat-chronic-burns-ulcers/ Cost effective skin grafts constructed to treat chronic burns, ulcers]''. Pakistan Today. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190820200858/https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2018/10/24/cost-effective-skin-grafts-constructed-to-treat-chronic-burns-ulcers/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved August 20th, 2019.</ref> The research was driven by the ''"Technology Development Fund"'' (TDF) of the ''"Higher Education Commission"'' (HEC) of Pakistan.<ref name="AzamDikici2019">Azam, Maryam; Dikici, Serkan; Roman, Sabiniano; Mehmood, Azra; Chaudhry, Aqif A; U Rehman, Ihtesham; MacNeil, Sheila; Yar, Muhammad (2019). ''[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0885328219859991?journalCode=jbaa Addition of 2-deoxy-d-ribose to clinically used alginate dressings stimulates angiogenesis and accelerates wound healing in diabetic rats]''. Journal of Biomaterials Applications: 088532821985999. doi:10.1177/0885328219859991. ISSN 0885-3282.</ref>
***The patent for the invention is held by both the COMSATS University Islamabad and the University of Sheffield.<ref name="patent">''[https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/materials/news/woundhealingsugars-1.743683 Breakthrough research shows sugar can be good for you.]''. November 6th, 2017. Sheffield Department of Materials Science and Engineering. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191128070733/https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/materials/news/woundhealingsugars-1.743683 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved November 28th, 2019.</ref>
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===Disease Eradication (1)===
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[List of Inventions and Discoveries in Medicine During the Islamic Golden Age|List of Inventions and Discoveries in Medicine During the Islamic Golden Age]]'''''
[[File:Guineaworm.jpg|thumb|right|120px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:75%;">In 1993, Pakistan became the first country to eradicate Dracunculiasis synthetically.</div>]]
* '''Dracunculiasis Eradication'''—By the 20th century, the guinea worm—also known as ''"Dracunculiasis"''<ref name="GoldmanSchafer2015">Lee Goldman; Andrew I. Schafer (21 April 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=40Z9CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2171&dq=Dracunculiasis+%22also+known+as+the+guinea+worm%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiLvIa_0PXjAhWLX8AKHf0dBUMQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Dracunculiasis%20%22also%20known%20as%20the%20guinea%20worm%22&f=false Goldman-Cecil Medicine E-Book]''. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 2171. ISBN 978-0-323-32285-0.</ref>—had for a long time, been retreating naturally through no eradication efforts, disappearing totally from the Soviet Union in the 1930s and Iran in the 1970s (having originally been spread by nomads, migrants and translocated prisoners).<ref name="Drisdelle2010">Rosemary Drisdelle (2010). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nyx_FxhRnRoC&pg=PR197&dq=978-0-520-25938-6&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi9goLsrPPjAhUgRxUIHS__AdsQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=978-0-520-25938-6&f=false Parasites: Tales of Humanity's Most Unwelcome Guests]''. University of California Press. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-520-25938-6.</ref> However it continued to flourish in at least 18 countries from which it originated (resulting in a total combined population of 120 million people still being at risk).<ref name="Drisdelle2010"/> The disease spreads from drinking water which contain larvae of the parasite ''"Dracunculiasis medinensis"'' (hosted and spread by water fleas<ref name="JamesElston2011">William D. James; Dirk Elston; Timothy Berger (21 March 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ef_HllqkdqEC&pg=PA428&dq=Dracunculiasis+medinensis+water+fleas&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwidppPj0vXjAhWJa8AKHXKQBEUQ6AEIYzAI#v=onepage&q=Dracunculiasis%20medinensis%20water%20fleas&f=false SPEC - Andrews' Diseases of the Skin]''. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 428. ISBN 1-4377-3619-X.</ref><ref name="ElderBaker2004">Kay Elder; Doris J. Baker; Julie A. Ribes (9 December 2004). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vNDSEmTBV8kC&pg=PA150&dq=Dracunculiasis+medinensis+water+fleas&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwidppPj0vXjAhWJa8AKHXKQBEUQ6AEIWzAH#v=onepage&q=Dracunculiasis%20medinensis%20water%20fleas&f=false Infections, Infertility, and Assisted Reproduction]''. Cambridge University Press. p. 150. ISBN 978-1-139-45559-6.</ref>). These are small cyclop shaped organisms which act as intermediate hosts.<ref name="RyanHill2019">Edward T Ryan; David R Hill; Tom Solomon (25 March 2019). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y8SODwAAQBAJ&pg=PA878&dq=Dracunculiasis+medinensis+water+fleas&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwidppPj0vXjAhWJa8AKHXKQBEUQ6AEIajAJ#v=onepage&q=Dracunculiasis%20medinensis%20water%20fleas&f=false Hunter's Tropical Medicine and Emerging Infectious Diseases E-Book]''. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 878. ISBN 978-0-323-62550-0.</ref> When ingested and killed, they release the larvae.<ref name="RyanHill2019"/>  
**In 1980,<ref name="RyanHill2019"/> the world's first guinea worm eradication programme was organised by the World Health Assembly in order to combat 400,000 new cases of reported every year. Pakistan successfully managed to eradicate the guinea worm in October 1993<ref name="HopkinsRuiz-Tiben1995"/> (having started in 1987<ref name="HopkinsRuiz-Tiben1995"/>),<ref name="centre">''[https://www.cartercenter.org/countries/pakistan.html Pakistan: Fighting Disease]''. Carter Centre. ''[http://archive.is/TtFRO Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved August 8th, 2019.</ref> and thus became the first country in the world to eradicate the disease,<ref name="Donald G. McNeil Jr (March 26th, 2006).">Donald G. McNeil Jr (March 26th, 2006). ''[https://www.cartercenter.org/documents/nondatabase/gw%20nyt%20reprint%20c.pdf Dose of Tenacity Wears Down an Ancient Horror]''. pg. 3. Carter Centre. ''[WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved August 8th, 2019.</ref> where''"[m]ethods pioneered in Pakistan’s National Guinea Worm Eradication Program"'' were then applied in the ''"remaining endemic countries"''.<ref name="HopkinsRuiz-Tiben1995">Hopkins, D.R.; Ruiz-Tiben, E.; Azam, M.; Kappus, K.D. (1995). ''[https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(95)91442-0/fulltext Eradication of dracunculiasis from Pakistan]''. The Lancet. 346 (8975): 621–624. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(95)91442-0. ISSN 0140-6736.</ref> Pakistan was subsequently ''"honored"'' by the United States ''"in 2000 for having stopped Guinea worm disease transmission"''.<ref name="centre"/> Thus, by 1996, India eradicated it as well.<ref name="Muller2005">Muller, R (2005). ''[https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1471492205002448 Guinea worm disease – the final chapter?]''. Trends in Parasitology. 21 (11): 521–524. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2005.08.024. ISSN 1471-4922.</ref> By 2019, of the 18 endemic countries, only 2 still reported infections (Chad and Angola).<ref name="guineawormtools">''[https://www.cartercenter.org/health/guinea_worm/case-totals.html Guinea Worm Case Totals]''. Carter Cente ''[http://archive.is/gtXd1 Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved August 9th, 2019.</ref>
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'''[[#Astronomy & Universe (4)|Astronomy]]''' •
'''[[#Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)|Agriculture, Food & Beverage]]''' •
'''[[#Biology (2)|Biology]]''' (''[[#Paleontology (10)|Paleontology]]'') •
'''[[#Chemistry (5)|Chemistry]]''' •
'''[[#Computing (4)|Computing]]''' (''[[#Video-gaming (1)|Video-gaming]] • [[#Board Games (1)|Board-games]]'') •
'''[[#Mathematics (3)|Mathematics]]''' •
'''[[#Medicines (1)|Medicine]]''' (''[[#Disease Eradication (1)|Disease Eradication]]'' • ''[[#Genetics & Disease (5)|Genetics & Disease]]'' • ''[[#Medical Instruments (6)|Instruments]]'') •
'''[[#Physics (5)|Physics]]''' •
'''Engineering''' (''[[#Naval Engineering (1)|Naval]]'' • ''[[#Mechanical Engineering (7)|Mechanical]]'' • ''[[#Handtool Engineering (3)|Handtool]]'' • ''[[#Textile Engineering (3)|Textile]]'' (''[[#Clothing (2)|Clothing]]'') • ''[[#Architectural Engineering (4)|Architectural]]'') •
'''[[#Sport & Recreation (2)|Sport & Recreation]]''' •
'''[[#Disputed (2)|Disputed]]''' •
[[#Further Reading|Further Reading]] •
[[#Sources|Sources]] •
(''[[#Footnotes|Footnotes]]'' • ''[[#References|References]]'' • ''[[#Acknowledgements|Acknowledgements]]'') •
[[#External Links|External Links]] •
'''''Total Inventions & Discoveries Listed: 77'''''
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[List of Inventions and Discoveries in Medicine During the Islamic Golden Age|List of Inventions and Discoveries in Medicine During the Islamic Golden Age]]'''''
[[File:Guineaworm.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:75%;">In 1993, Pakistan became the first country to eradicate Dracunculiasis synthetically.</div>]]
* '''Dracunculiasis Eradication'''—By the 20th century, the guinea worm—also known as ''"Dracunculiasis"''<ref name="GoldmanSchafer2015">Lee Goldman; Andrew I. Schafer (21 April 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=40Z9CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2171&dq=Dracunculiasis+%22also+known+as+the+guinea+worm%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiLvIa_0PXjAhWLX8AKHf0dBUMQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Dracunculiasis%20%22also%20known%20as%20the%20guinea%20worm%22&f=false Goldman-Cecil Medicine E-Book]''. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 2171. ISBN 978-0-323-32285-0.</ref>—had for a long time, been retreating naturally through no eradication efforts, disappearing totally from the Soviet Union in the 1930s and Iran in the 1970s (having originally been spread by nomads, migrants and translocated prisoners).<ref name="Drisdelle2010">Rosemary Drisdelle (2010). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nyx_FxhRnRoC&pg=PR197&dq=978-0-520-25938-6&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi9goLsrPPjAhUgRxUIHS__AdsQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=978-0-520-25938-6&f=false Parasites: Tales of Humanity's Most Unwelcome Guests]''. University of California Press. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-520-25938-6.</ref> However it continued to flourish in at least 18 countries from which it originated (resulting in a total combined population of 120 million people still being at risk).<ref name="Drisdelle2010"/> The disease spreads from drinking water which contain larvae of the parasite ''"Dracunculiasis medinensis"'' (hosted and spread by water fleas<ref name="JamesElston2011">William D. James; Dirk Elston; Timothy Berger (21 March 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ef_HllqkdqEC&pg=PA428&dq=Dracunculiasis+medinensis+water+fleas&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwidppPj0vXjAhWJa8AKHXKQBEUQ6AEIYzAI#v=onepage&q=Dracunculiasis%20medinensis%20water%20fleas&f=false SPEC - Andrews' Diseases of the Skin]''. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 428. ISBN 1-4377-3619-X.</ref><ref name="ElderBaker2004">Kay Elder; Doris J. Baker; Julie A. Ribes (9 December 2004). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vNDSEmTBV8kC&pg=PA150&dq=Dracunculiasis+medinensis+water+fleas&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwidppPj0vXjAhWJa8AKHXKQBEUQ6AEIWzAH#v=onepage&q=Dracunculiasis%20medinensis%20water%20fleas&f=false Infections, Infertility, and Assisted Reproduction]''. Cambridge University Press. p. 150. ISBN 978-1-139-45559-6.</ref>). These are small cyclop shaped organisms which act as intermediate hosts.<ref name="RyanHill2019">Edward T Ryan; David R Hill; Tom Solomon (25 March 2019). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y8SODwAAQBAJ&pg=PA878&dq=Dracunculiasis+medinensis+water+fleas&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwidppPj0vXjAhWJa8AKHXKQBEUQ6AEIajAJ#v=onepage&q=Dracunculiasis%20medinensis%20water%20fleas&f=false Hunter's Tropical Medicine and Emerging Infectious Diseases E-Book]''. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 878. ISBN 978-0-323-62550-0.</ref> When ingested and killed, they release the larvae.<ref name="RyanHill2019"/>  
**In 1980,<ref name="RyanHill2019"/> the world's first guinea worm eradication programme was organised by the World Health Assembly in order to combat 400,000 new cases of reported every year. Pakistan successfully managed to eradicate the guinea worm in October 1993<ref name="HopkinsRuiz-Tiben1995"/> (having started in 1987<ref name="HopkinsRuiz-Tiben1995"/>),<ref name="centre">''[https://www.cartercenter.org/countries/pakistan.html Pakistan: Fighting Disease]''. Carter Centre. ''[http://archive.is/TtFRO Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved August 8th, 2019.</ref> and thus became the first country in the world to eradicate the disease,<ref name="Donald G. McNeil Jr (March 26th, 2006).">Donald G. McNeil Jr (March 26th, 2006). ''[https://www.cartercenter.org/documents/nondatabase/gw%20nyt%20reprint%20c.pdf Dose of Tenacity Wears Down an Ancient Horror]''. pg. 3. Carter Centre. ''[WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved August 8th, 2019.</ref> where''"[m]ethods pioneered in Pakistan’s National Guinea Worm Eradication Program"'' were then applied in the ''"remaining endemic countries"''.<ref name="HopkinsRuiz-Tiben1995">Hopkins, D.R.; Ruiz-Tiben, E.; Azam, M.; Kappus, K.D. (1995). ''[https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(95)91442-0/fulltext Eradication of dracunculiasis from Pakistan]''. The Lancet. 346 (8975): 621–624. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(95)91442-0. ISSN 0140-6736.</ref> Pakistan was subsequently ''"honored"'' by the United States ''"in 2000 for having stopped Guinea worm disease transmission"''.<ref name="centre"/> Thus, by 1996, India eradicated it as well.<ref name="Muller2005">Muller, R (2005). ''[https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1471492205002448 Guinea worm disease – the final chapter?]''. Trends in Parasitology. 21 (11): 521–524. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2005.08.024. ISSN 1471-4922.</ref> By 2019, of the 18 endemic countries, only 2 still reported infections (Chad and Angola).<ref name="guineawormtools">''[https://www.cartercenter.org/health/guinea_worm/case-totals.html Guinea Worm Case Totals]''. Carter Cente ''[http://archive.is/gtXd1 Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved August 9th, 2019.</ref>
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===Genetics & Disease (5)===
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[List of Inventions and Discoveries in Medicine During the Islamic Golden Age|List of Inventions and Discoveries in Medicine During the Islamic Golden Age]]'''''
[[File:2jq3.pdb-500.jpg|thumb|left|110px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">The Apo-CIII protein, which codes for the APOC3 gene.<ref name="ApolipoproteinC-III">''[http://www.rcsb.org/structure/2JQ3 2JQ3 Structure and Dynamics of Human Apolipoprotein C-III]''. RCSB Protein Data Bank. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191021060629/http://www.rcsb.org/structure/2JQ3 WayBackMachine Link]''. DOI: 10.2210/pdb2JQ3/pdb. BMRB: 15268. Retrieved October 21st, 2019.</ref><ref name="GangabadageZdunek2008">Gangabadage, C.S.; Zdunek, J.; Tessari, M.; Nilsson, S.; Olivecrona, G.; Wijmenga, S. (2008). ''"[http://www.rcsb.org/structure/2JQ3 Structure and Dynamics of Human Apolipoprotein C-III]"''. doi:10.2210/pdb2jq3/pdb.</ref>
</div>]]
::::::*'''APOC3 Gene, CHD-Link'''—In 2015, in a groundbreaking collaborative research project between Pakistan, the UK and the USA (lead by Pakistani scientists<ref name="cambrdigenihr">''[https://cambridgebrc.nihr.ac.uk/rare-knockout-gene-mutations-humans-help-scientists-determine-gene-function/ Rare “knockout” gene mutations in humans help scientists determine gene function]''. University of Cambridge. Cambridge Biomedical Research Center. National Institute of Health Research. ''[http://archive.is/wLDY4 Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved October 21st, 2019.</ref>); researchers were able to discover for the first time that the APOC3 gene was the cause of coronary heart disease (CHD); and that those born without the gene were ''"protected against coronary heart disease"'' itself.<ref name="Mahrukh Sarwar (July 4th, 2017).">Mahrukh Sarwar (July 4th, 2017). ''[https://www.dawn.com/news/1343179 Study finds 1,317 knocked-out genes in DNA samples from Pakistanis]''. Dawn. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016212844/https://www.dawn.com/news/1343179 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref><ref name="SaleheenNatarajan2017">Saleheen, Danish; Natarajan, Pradeep; Armean, Irina M.; Zhao, Wei; Rasheed, Asif; Khetarpal, Sumeet A.; Won, Hong-Hee; Karczewski, Konrad J.; O’Donnell-Luria, Anne H.; Samocha, Kaitlin E.; Weisburd, Benjamin; Gupta, Namrata; Zaidi, Mozzam; Samuel, Maria; Imran, Atif; Abbas, Shahid; Majeed, Faisal; Ishaq, Madiha; Akhtar, Saba; Trindade, Kevin; Mucksavage, Megan; Qamar, Nadeem; Zaman, Khan Shah; Yaqoob, Zia; Saghir, Tahir; Rizvi, Syed Nadeem Hasan; Memon, Anis; Hayyat Mallick, Nadeem; Ishaq, Mohammad; Rasheed, Syed Zahed; Memon, Fazal-ur-Rehman; Mahmood, Khalid; Ahmed, Naveeduddin; Do, Ron; Krauss, Ronald M.; MacArthur, Daniel G.; Gabriel, Stacey; Lander, Eric S.; Daly, Mark J.; Frossard, Philippe; Danesh, John; Rader, Daniel J.; Kathiresan, Sekar (2017). ''"[https://www.nature.com/articles/nature22034 Human knockouts and phenotypic analysis in a cohort with a high rate of consanguinity]"''. Nature. 544 (7649): 235–239. doi:10.1038/nature22034. ISSN 0028-0836.</ref> Furthermore, ''"when compared to other family members who had the gene, individuals with an absence of APOC3 didn’t get a significant postprandial rise in their blood fat levels and were perfectly healthy"'' which meant they had ''"little artery-clogging fat in their body"''.<ref name="Mahrukh Sarwar (July 4th, 2017)."/><ref name="SaleheenNatarajan2017"/> The discovery has opened up an opportunity to develop newer, highly specialised medicines (i.e. personalised medicines) to block the gene.<ref name="Mahrukh Sarwar (July 4th, 2017)."/><ref name="SaleheenNatarajan2017"/>
::::::**The study was also the first to discover '''1,317 new knockout genes'''.<ref name="Mahrukh Sarwar (July 4th, 2017)."/><ref name="SaleheenNatarajan2017"/> This was groundbreaking since ''"people who are natural knockouts, that is, they were born missing one or more genes without any obvious medical problems are few and far between"''.<ref name="Mahrukh Sarwar (July 4th, 2017)."/><ref name="SaleheenNatarajan2017"/> Additionally, ''"the study found '''734 genes''' where both copies were affected by...“double knock-outs”...which had never been described before"''.<ref name="Mahrukh Sarwar (July 4th, 2017)."/><ref name="SaleheenNatarajan2017"/> Lastly, ''"[t]his Pakistani research study is...the first time where the knockouts found have been tested and their blood biomarkers...have been studied to discover more about their health"''.<ref name="Mahrukh Sarwar (July 4th, 2017)."/><ref name="SaleheenNatarajan2017"/>
::::::**The conclusions of the study are particularly notable because these discoveries could only have been made in a group that were closely related (for example the total absence of the APOC3 gene, of which everyone has between 1—2 copies, was only ever found in Pakistan).<ref name="Mahrukh Sarwar (July 4th, 2017)."/><ref name="SaleheenNatarajan2017"/> This is because in Pakistan cousin marriages are common, which presented a rare opportunity to see how the effects of cousin marriage actually gave advantageous health benefits.<ref name="cambrdigenihr"/><ref name="Mahrukh Sarwar (July 4th, 2017)."/><ref name="SaleheenNatarajan2017"/> However, for the purposes of balance, cousin marriages can also prove disadvantageous. It is a ''"double-edged sword"''.

[[File:Protein MARK3 PDB 1ul7.jpg|thumb|right|100px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:70%;">MARK3 Gene Protein.</div>]]
*'''MARK3 Gene Mutation'''—In May 2018, Pakistani scientists (along with their Swiss and American counterparts) were the first to discover a gene mutation in the MAP/microtubule affinity-regulating kinase 3 enzyme ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MARK3 MARK3]) that causes ''"Phthisis bulbi"'', a disease which causes permanent blindness.<ref name="AnsarChung2018">Ansar, Muhammad; Chung, Hyunglok; Waryah, Yar M; Makrythanasis, Periklis; Falconnet, Emilie; Rao, Ali Raza; Guipponi, Michel; Narsani, Ashok K; Fingerhut, Ralph; Santoni, Federico A; Ranza, Emmanuelle; Waryah, Ali M; Bellen, Hugo J; Antonarakis, Stylianos E (2018). ''"[https://academic.oup.com/hmg/article/27/15/2703/4996738 Visual impairment and progressive phthisis bulbi caused by recessive pathogenic variant in MARK3]''. Human Molecular Genetics. 27 (15): 2703–2711. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddy180. ISSN 0964-6906.</ref><ref name="Monitoring Report (October 12th, 2018).">Monitoring Report (October 12th, 2018). ''[https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2018/10/12/pakistani-swiss-scientists-discover-gene-causing-blindness/ Pakistani, Swiss scientists discover gene causing blindness]''. Pakistan Today. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191013003544/https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2018/10/12/pakistani-swiss-scientists-discover-gene-causing-blindness/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 13th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Suhail Yusuf (October 11th, 2018).">Suhail Yusuf (October 11th, 2018). ''[https://tribune.com.pk/story/1823660/5-mark3-newly-discovered-gene-causing-blindness-pakistan/ MARK3, gene responsible for mysterious blindness, discovered in Pakistan]''. Tribune. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191013003907/https://tribune.com.pk/story/1823660/5-mark3-newly-discovered-gene-causing-blindness-pakistan/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 13th, 2019.</ref> The disease itself has been known for thousands of years<ref name="TripathyChawla2018">Tripathy, Koushik; Chawla, Rohan; Temkar, Shreyas; Sagar, Pradeep; Kashyap, Seema; Pushker, Neelam; Sharma, Yog Raj (2018). ''"[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08820538.2018.1477966?journalCode=isio20 Phthisis Bulbi—a Clinicopathological Perspective]"''. Seminars in Ophthalmology. 33 (6): 788–803. doi:10.1080/08820538.2018.1477966. ISSN 0882-0538.</ref>—but precisely what caused it remained unknown until 2018.<ref name="AnsarChung2018"/> The human genome consists of 20,000 genes, but only 4,141 of them have ever been linked to disease aetiologies, leaving approximately 16,000 of them left undiscovered.<ref name="Université de Genève (July 23rd 2018).">Université de Genève (July 23rd 2018). ''[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/07/180723142801.htm Blindness gene discovered: Researchers have identified the gene responsible for a recessive genetic disorder that causes degeneration of the eye and blindness]''. ScienceDaily. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012180728/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/07/180723142801.htm WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref> One of these was MARK3.<ref name="Université de Genève (July 23rd 2018)."/>
**Interestingly, Pakistan's first genetic mutation database (called the ''"Pakistan Genetic Mutation Database"'' (PGMD)) was set up by Kohat University of Science and Technology in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.<ref name="Samir Yawar (October 13th, 2018).">Samir Yawar (October 13th, 2018). ''[https://propakistani.pk/2018/10/13/genetic-disease-responsible-for-mysterious-blindness-discovered-in-pakistan/]''. ProPakistani. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191013004100/https://propakistani.pk/2018/10/13/genetic-disease-responsible-for-mysterious-blindness-discovered-in-pakistan/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 13th, 2019.</ref> The database was first set up in 2018, and it's importance is highlighted in the fact that 29 million people out of Pakistan’s 200 million have diseases which are linked to faulty genes.<ref name="Saleem Shaikh (January 12th, 2018).">Saleem Shaikh (January 12th, 2018). ''[https://www.scidev.net/global/genomics/news/pakistani-database-to-help-deal-with-genetic-disorders-1x.html Pakistani database to help deal with genetic disorders]''. Sci Dev Net. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20180215020632/https://scidev.net/global/genomics/news/pakistani-database-to-help-deal-with-genetic-disorders-1x.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 13th, 2019.</ref> So far it has identified 1,000 genes and 120 syndromic/non-syndromic disorders.<ref name="Saleem Shaikh (January 12th, 2018)."/> The databases existence is further justified as Pakistan has one of the highest rates of consanguineous marriages in the world (amongst close cousins) at 62.7%.<ref name="Saleem Shaikh (January 12th, 2018)."/>
*'''''Siddiqi Syndrome'''''—In 2017, Saima Siddiqi from the ''"Institute of Biomedical and Genetic Engineering"'' in Islamabad, was the first to discover the existence of a deafness–dystonia syndrome known as ''"Siddiqi Syndrome"''.<ref name="Zazo SecoCastells-Nobau2017">Zazo Seco, Celia; Castells-Nobau, Anna; Joo, Seol-hee; Schraders, Margit; Foo, Jia Nee; van der Voet, Monique; Velan, S. Sendhil; Nijhof, Bonnie; Oostrik, Jaap; de Vrieze, Erik; Katana, Radoslaw; Mansoor, Atika; Huynen, Martijn; Szklarczyk, Radek; Oti, Martin; Tranebjærg, Lisbeth; van Wijk, Erwin; Scheffer-de Gooyert, Jolanda M.; Siddique, Saadat; Baets, Jonathan; de Jonghe, Peter; Kazmi, Syed Ali Raza; Sadananthan, Suresh Anand; van de Warrenburg, Bart P.; Khor, Chiea Chuen; Göpfert, Martin C.; Qamar, Raheel; Schenck, Annette; Kremer, Hannie; Siddiqi, Saima (2017). ''"[https://dmm.biologists.org/content/10/2/105 A homozygousFITM2mutation causes a deafness-dystonia syndrome with motor regression and signs of ichthyosis and sensory neuropathy]"''. Disease Models & Mechanisms. 10 (2): 105–118. doi:10.1242/dmm.026476. ISSN 1754-8403.</ref><ref name="diseasemodels">''[https://dmm.biologists.org/content/dmm-news-026476 Newly discovered deafness–dystonia syndrome brings rare disease research in from the plains]''. Disease Models & Mechanisms. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191013010521/https://dmm.biologists.org/content/dmm-news-026476 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 13th, 2019.</ref> The disease is caused by a genetic mutation in the ''"fat storage-inducing transmembrane protein 2"'' ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FITM2 FITM2]) gene.<ref name="Zazo SecoCastells-Nobau2017"/><ref name="diseasemodels"/> The disease is classified as rare, and the discovery of the disease will be used to screen couples who carry the gene in order to prevent their children from passing it on and developing the condition.<ref name="diseasemodels"/> The faulty gene's discovery also provides a basis on which to develop future medicines.<ref name="diseasemodels"/>
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'''[[#Astronomy & Universe (4)|Astronomy]]''' •
'''[[#Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)|Agriculture, Food & Beverage]]''' •
'''[[#Biology (2)|Biology]]''' (''[[#Paleontology (10)|Paleontology]]'') •
'''[[#Chemistry (5)|Chemistry]]''' •
'''[[#Computing (4)|Computing]]''' (''[[#Video-gaming (1)|Video-gaming]] • [[#Board Games (1)|Board-games]]'') •
'''[[#Mathematics (3)|Mathematics]]''' •
'''[[#Medicines (1)|Medicine]]''' (''[[#Disease Eradication (1)|Disease Eradication]]'' • ''[[#Genetics & Disease (5)|Genetics & Disease]]'' • ''[[#Medical Instruments (6)|Instruments]]'') •
'''[[#Physics (5)|Physics]]''' •
'''Engineering''' (''[[#Naval Engineering (1)|Naval]]'' • ''[[#Mechanical Engineering (7)|Mechanical]]'' • ''[[#Handtool Engineering (3)|Handtool]]'' • ''[[#Textile Engineering (3)|Textile]]'' (''[[#Clothing (2)|Clothing]]'') • ''[[#Architectural Engineering (4)|Architectural]]'') •
'''[[#Sport & Recreation (2)|Sport & Recreation]]''' •
'''[[#Disputed (2)|Disputed]]''' •
[[#Further Reading|Further Reading]] •
[[#Sources|Sources]] •
(''[[#Footnotes|Footnotes]]'' • ''[[#References|References]]'' • ''[[#Acknowledgements|Acknowledgements]]'') •
[[#External Links|External Links]] •
'''''Total Inventions & Discoveries Listed: 77'''''
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[List of Inventions and Discoveries in Medicine During the Islamic Golden Age|List of Inventions and Discoveries in Medicine During the Islamic Golden Age]]'''''
[[File:2jq3.pdb-500.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">The Apo-CIII protein, which codes for the APOC3 gene.<ref name="ApolipoproteinC-III">''[http://www.rcsb.org/structure/2JQ3 2JQ3 Structure and Dynamics of Human Apolipoprotein C-III]''. RCSB Protein Data Bank. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191021060629/http://www.rcsb.org/structure/2JQ3 WayBackMachine Link]''. DOI: 10.2210/pdb2JQ3/pdb. BMRB: 15268. Retrieved October 21st, 2019.</ref><ref name="GangabadageZdunek2008">Gangabadage, C.S.; Zdunek, J.; Tessari, M.; Nilsson, S.; Olivecrona, G.; Wijmenga, S. (2008). ''"[http://www.rcsb.org/structure/2JQ3 Structure and Dynamics of Human Apolipoprotein C-III]"''. doi:10.2210/pdb2jq3/pdb.</ref>
</div>]]
*'''APOC3 Gene, CHD-Link'''—In 2015, in a groundbreaking collaborative research project between Pakistan, the UK and the USA (lead by Pakistani scientists<ref name="cambrdigenihr">''[https://cambridgebrc.nihr.ac.uk/rare-knockout-gene-mutations-humans-help-scientists-determine-gene-function/ Rare “knockout” gene mutations in humans help scientists determine gene function]''. University of Cambridge. Cambridge Biomedical Research Center. National Institute of Health Research. ''[http://archive.is/wLDY4 Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved October 21st, 2019.</ref>); researchers were able to discover for the first time that the APOC3 gene was the cause of coronary heart disease (CHD); and that those born without the gene were ''"protected against coronary heart disease"'' itself.<ref name="Mahrukh Sarwar (July 4th, 2017).">Mahrukh Sarwar (July 4th, 2017). ''[https://www.dawn.com/news/1343179 Study finds 1,317 knocked-out genes in DNA samples from Pakistanis]''. Dawn. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016212844/https://www.dawn.com/news/1343179 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref><ref name="SaleheenNatarajan2017">Saleheen, Danish; Natarajan, Pradeep; Armean, Irina M.; Zhao, Wei; Rasheed, Asif; Khetarpal, Sumeet A.; Won, Hong-Hee; Karczewski, Konrad J.; O’Donnell-Luria, Anne H.; Samocha, Kaitlin E.; Weisburd, Benjamin; Gupta, Namrata; Zaidi, Mozzam; Samuel, Maria; Imran, Atif; Abbas, Shahid; Majeed, Faisal; Ishaq, Madiha; Akhtar, Saba; Trindade, Kevin; Mucksavage, Megan; Qamar, Nadeem; Zaman, Khan Shah; Yaqoob, Zia; Saghir, Tahir; Rizvi, Syed Nadeem Hasan; Memon, Anis; Hayyat Mallick, Nadeem; Ishaq, Mohammad; Rasheed, Syed Zahed; Memon, Fazal-ur-Rehman; Mahmood, Khalid; Ahmed, Naveeduddin; Do, Ron; Krauss, Ronald M.; MacArthur, Daniel G.; Gabriel, Stacey; Lander, Eric S.; Daly, Mark J.; Frossard, Philippe; Danesh, John; Rader, Daniel J.; Kathiresan, Sekar (2017). ''"[https://www.nature.com/articles/nature22034 Human knockouts and phenotypic analysis in a cohort with a high rate of consanguinity]"''. Nature. 544 (7649): 235–239. doi:10.1038/nature22034. ISSN 0028-0836.</ref> Furthermore, ''"when compared to other family members who had the gene, individuals with an absence of APOC3 didn’t get a significant postprandial rise in their blood fat levels and were perfectly healthy"'' which meant they had ''"little artery-clogging fat in their body"''.<ref name="Mahrukh Sarwar (July 4th, 2017)."/><ref name="SaleheenNatarajan2017"/> The discovery has opened up an opportunity to develop newer, highly specialised medicines (i.e. personalised medicines) to block the gene.<ref name="Mahrukh Sarwar (July 4th, 2017)."/><ref name="SaleheenNatarajan2017"/>
**The study was also the first to discover '''1,317 new knockout genes'''.<ref name="Mahrukh Sarwar (July 4th, 2017)."/><ref name="SaleheenNatarajan2017"/> This was groundbreaking since ''"people who are natural knockouts, that is, they were born missing one or more genes without any obvious medical problems are few and far between"''.<ref name="Mahrukh Sarwar (July 4th, 2017)."/><ref name="SaleheenNatarajan2017"/> Additionally, ''"the study found '''734 genes''' where both copies were affected by...“double knock-outs”...which had never been described before"''.<ref name="Mahrukh Sarwar (July 4th, 2017)."/><ref name="SaleheenNatarajan2017"/> Lastly, ''"[t]his Pakistani research study is...the first time where the knockouts found have been tested and their blood biomarkers...have been studied to discover more about their health"''.<ref name="Mahrukh Sarwar (July 4th, 2017)."/><ref name="SaleheenNatarajan2017"/>
**The conclusions of the study are particularly notable because these discoveries could only have been made in a group that were closely related (for example the total absence of the APOC3 gene, of which everyone has between 1—2 copies, was only ever found in Pakistan).<ref name="Mahrukh Sarwar (July 4th, 2017)."/><ref name="SaleheenNatarajan2017"/> This is because in Pakistan cousin marriages are common, which presented a rare opportunity to see how the effects of cousin marriage actually gave advantageous health benefits.<ref name="cambrdigenihr"/><ref name="Mahrukh Sarwar (July 4th, 2017)."/><ref name="SaleheenNatarajan2017"/> However, for the purposes of balance, cousin marriages can also prove disadvantageous. It is a ''"double-edged sword"''.

[[File:Protein MARK3 PDB 1ul7.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:70%;">MARK3 Gene Protein.</div>]]
*'''MARK3 Gene Mutation'''—In May 2018, Pakistani scientists (along with their Swiss and American counterparts) were the first to discover a gene mutation in the MAP/microtubule affinity-regulating kinase 3 enzyme ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MARK3 MARK3]) that causes ''"Phthisis bulbi"'', a disease which causes permanent blindness.<ref name="AnsarChung2018">Ansar, Muhammad; Chung, Hyunglok; Waryah, Yar M; Makrythanasis, Periklis; Falconnet, Emilie; Rao, Ali Raza; Guipponi, Michel; Narsani, Ashok K; Fingerhut, Ralph; Santoni, Federico A; Ranza, Emmanuelle; Waryah, Ali M; Bellen, Hugo J; Antonarakis, Stylianos E (2018). ''"[https://academic.oup.com/hmg/article/27/15/2703/4996738 Visual impairment and progressive phthisis bulbi caused by recessive pathogenic variant in MARK3]''. Human Molecular Genetics. 27 (15): 2703–2711. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddy180. ISSN 0964-6906.</ref><ref name="Monitoring Report (October 12th, 2018).">Monitoring Report (October 12th, 2018). ''[https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2018/10/12/pakistani-swiss-scientists-discover-gene-causing-blindness/ Pakistani, Swiss scientists discover gene causing blindness]''. Pakistan Today. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191013003544/https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2018/10/12/pakistani-swiss-scientists-discover-gene-causing-blindness/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 13th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Suhail Yusuf (October 11th, 2018).">Suhail Yusuf (October 11th, 2018). ''[https://tribune.com.pk/story/1823660/5-mark3-newly-discovered-gene-causing-blindness-pakistan/ MARK3, gene responsible for mysterious blindness, discovered in Pakistan]''. Tribune. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191013003907/https://tribune.com.pk/story/1823660/5-mark3-newly-discovered-gene-causing-blindness-pakistan/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 13th, 2019.</ref> The disease itself has been known for thousands of years<ref name="TripathyChawla2018">Tripathy, Koushik; Chawla, Rohan; Temkar, Shreyas; Sagar, Pradeep; Kashyap, Seema; Pushker, Neelam; Sharma, Yog Raj (2018). ''"[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08820538.2018.1477966?journalCode=isio20 Phthisis Bulbi—a Clinicopathological Perspective]"''. Seminars in Ophthalmology. 33 (6): 788–803. doi:10.1080/08820538.2018.1477966. ISSN 0882-0538.</ref>—but precisely what caused it remained unknown until 2018.<ref name="AnsarChung2018"/> The human genome consists of 20,000 genes, but only 4,141 of them have ever been linked to disease aetiologies, leaving approximately 16,000 of them left undiscovered.<ref name="Université de Genève (July 23rd 2018).">Université de Genève (July 23rd 2018). ''[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/07/180723142801.htm Blindness gene discovered: Researchers have identified the gene responsible for a recessive genetic disorder that causes degeneration of the eye and blindness]''. ScienceDaily. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191012180728/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/07/180723142801.htm WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 12th, 2019.</ref> One of these was MARK3.<ref name="Université de Genève (July 23rd 2018)."/>
**Interestingly, Pakistan's first genetic mutation database (called the ''"Pakistan Genetic Mutation Database"'' (PGMD)) was set up by Kohat University of Science and Technology in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.<ref name="Samir Yawar (October 13th, 2018).">Samir Yawar (October 13th, 2018). ''[https://propakistani.pk/2018/10/13/genetic-disease-responsible-for-mysterious-blindness-discovered-in-pakistan/]''. ProPakistani. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191013004100/https://propakistani.pk/2018/10/13/genetic-disease-responsible-for-mysterious-blindness-discovered-in-pakistan/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 13th, 2019.</ref> The database was first set up in 2018, and it's importance is highlighted in the fact that 29 million people out of Pakistan’s 200 million have diseases which are linked to faulty genes.<ref name="Saleem Shaikh (January 12th, 2018).">Saleem Shaikh (January 12th, 2018). ''[https://www.scidev.net/global/genomics/news/pakistani-database-to-help-deal-with-genetic-disorders-1x.html Pakistani database to help deal with genetic disorders]''. Sci Dev Net. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20180215020632/https://scidev.net/global/genomics/news/pakistani-database-to-help-deal-with-genetic-disorders-1x.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 13th, 2019.</ref> So far it has identified 1,000 genes and 120 syndromic/non-syndromic disorders.<ref name="Saleem Shaikh (January 12th, 2018)."/> The databases existence is further justified as Pakistan has one of the highest rates of consanguineous marriages in the world (amongst close cousins) at 62.7%.<ref name="Saleem Shaikh (January 12th, 2018)."/>
*'''''Siddiqi Syndrome'''''—In 2017, Saima Siddiqi from the ''"Institute of Biomedical and Genetic Engineering"'' in Islamabad, was the first to discover the existence of a deafness–dystonia syndrome known as ''"Siddiqi Syndrome"''.<ref name="Zazo SecoCastells-Nobau2017">Zazo Seco, Celia; Castells-Nobau, Anna; Joo, Seol-hee; Schraders, Margit; Foo, Jia Nee; van der Voet, Monique; Velan, S. Sendhil; Nijhof, Bonnie; Oostrik, Jaap; de Vrieze, Erik; Katana, Radoslaw; Mansoor, Atika; Huynen, Martijn; Szklarczyk, Radek; Oti, Martin; Tranebjærg, Lisbeth; van Wijk, Erwin; Scheffer-de Gooyert, Jolanda M.; Siddique, Saadat; Baets, Jonathan; de Jonghe, Peter; Kazmi, Syed Ali Raza; Sadananthan, Suresh Anand; van de Warrenburg, Bart P.; Khor, Chiea Chuen; Göpfert, Martin C.; Qamar, Raheel; Schenck, Annette; Kremer, Hannie; Siddiqi, Saima (2017). ''"[https://dmm.biologists.org/content/10/2/105 A homozygousFITM2mutation causes a deafness-dystonia syndrome with motor regression and signs of ichthyosis and sensory neuropathy]"''. Disease Models & Mechanisms. 10 (2): 105–118. doi:10.1242/dmm.026476. ISSN 1754-8403.</ref><ref name="diseasemodels">''[https://dmm.biologists.org/content/dmm-news-026476 Newly discovered deafness–dystonia syndrome brings rare disease research in from the plains]''. Disease Models & Mechanisms. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191013010521/https://dmm.biologists.org/content/dmm-news-026476 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 13th, 2019.</ref> The disease is caused by a genetic mutation in the ''"fat storage-inducing transmembrane protein 2"'' ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FITM2 FITM2]) gene.<ref name="Zazo SecoCastells-Nobau2017"/><ref name="diseasemodels"/> The disease is classified as rare, and the discovery of the disease will be used to screen couples who carry the gene in order to prevent their children from passing it on and developing the condition.<ref name="diseasemodels"/> The faulty gene's discovery also provides a basis on which to develop future medicines.<ref name="diseasemodels"/>
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===Medical Instruments (6)===
<!-------------DESKTOP VERSION ---------------------->
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<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">
::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[List of Inventions and Discoveries in Medicine During the Islamic Golden Age|List of Inventions and Discoveries in Medicine During the Islamic Golden Age]]'''''
[[File:Neha stick.jpg|thumb|left|170px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">The Neha Stick. Used in Parkinson's Disease.</div>]]
:::::::::*'''Catheter Mount, ''Non-Kink'''''—Ahmad Khan Jamil (1939—Present) was the first to invent the non-kink catheter mount.<ref name="Jamil1974">Jamil, A.K. (1974). ''[https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0007091217478317 NON-KINK CATHETER MOUNT]''. British Journal of Anaesthesia. 46 (8): 628. doi:10.1093/bja/46.8.628-a. ISSN 0007-0912.</ref> Catheter mounts are used in anaesthesia, but standard catheter mounts are problematic in that during their use they were often bent out of shape.<ref name="Jamil1974"/> Jamil at the time devised an ingenious method of producing non-kink catheter mounts which could be twisted 180 degrees without being dented.<ref name="Jamil1974"/> He developed this using a strong inner armour which prevented kinkage.<ref name="Jamil1974"/> This mount is used primarily in head, neck and neuro surgeries.
:::::::::*'''Neha Smart Stick'''—The ''PD Walking Smart Stick'', ''Walk to Beat'' or the ''Neha Smart Stick'', was invented by Neha Chaudhary (1993<ref name="Ana Duarte on (June 17th, 2016).">Ana Duarte on (June 17th, 2016). ''[https://patient-innovation.com/post/1323 Smart cane for Parkinson's disease patients]''. Patient Innovation. ''[http://archive.is/T9QGc Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved July 18th, 2019.</ref>—Present) in the 2010s, in order to help patients who had Parkinson's Disease to walk (the disease itself affects 10 million people globally<ref name="Sana Jamal (September 28, 2017).">Sana Jamal (September 28, 2017). ''[https://gulfnews.com/world/asia/pakistan/young-pakistani-student-develops-innovative-stick-to-assist-parkinsons-patients-1.2097604 Young Pakistani student develops innovative stick to assist Parkinson’s patients]''. Gulf News. ''[http://archive.is/cq04v WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved July 18th, 2019.</ref>).<ref name="Sana Jamal (September 28, 2017)."/> In 2010 Chaudhary moved to the UK to start her degree in product design technology at the University of the West of England and developed the stick over a period of several months as part of her final year project.<ref name="Sana Jamal (September 28, 2017)."/> Her invention was driven by the suffering of her grandfather who struggled with Parkinson's for eight years.<ref name="Sana Jamal (September 28, 2017)."/> 
:::::::::**The invention works by sending mild electrical signals through the hands and subsequently the body of those who suffer from Parkinson's.<ref name="Tristan Cork (15th June 2017).">Tristan Cork (15th June 2017). ''[https://www.bristolpost.co.uk/news/bristol-news/inventor-neha-chaudhry-allowed-stay-114610 Inventor Neha Chaudhry allowed to stay in Bristol after Home Office U-turn]''. Bristol Post. ''[http://archive.is/4L7Y6 Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved July 18th, 2019.</ref> This prevents patients from suffering from gait and freeze reactions that are common with the condition which leads to hard falls. The stick therefore allows patients to continue to be mobile without suffering from injuries arising from unpredictable falls. Put simply by one report ''"[h]er invention, Walk to Beat, uses sensors, which detect when a patient freezes and send rhythmic vibrations through its handle, to encourage smooth walking gait"''.<ref name="Almaz Ohene (21st June 2017).">Almaz Ohene (21st June 2017). ''[https://parkinsonslife.eu/parkinsons-walking-stick-inventor-entrepreneur-visa-home-office/ Parkinson’s walking stick inventor granted entrepreneur visa after Home Office U-turn]''. Parkinson's Life. ''[http://archive.is/HPzJQ Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved July 18th, 2019.</ref>

[[File:Ommaya reservoir.jpg|thumb|right|120px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:70%;">The Ommaya Reservoir, also known as the cerebrospinal fluid reservoir, was invented by Ayub K. Ommaya.</div>]]
*'''Ommaya Reservoir/Cerebrospinal Fluid Reservoir'''—In 1963, Ayub K. Ommaya (1930—2008<ref name="DossaniKalakoti2017">Dossani, Rimal Hanif; Kalakoti, Piyush; Thakur, Jai Deep; Nanda, Anil (2017). ''[https://academic.oup.com/neurosurgery/article-abstract/80/2/324/2691306?redirectedFrom=fulltext Ayub Khan Ommaya (1930-2008): Legacy and Contributions to Neurosurgery]''. Neurosurgery. 80 (2): 324–330. doi:10.1093/neuros/nyw031. ISSN 0148-396X.</ref>) became the first to invent the cerebrospinal fluid reservoir (''"Ommaya Reservoir"'').<ref name="DombKhan2014">Abraham J. Domb; Wahid Khan (17 February 2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R4S8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA175&dq=Ayub+Ommaya&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj4pab2wsTiAhV8XRUIHU0UDXAQ6AEIPDAD#v=onepage&q=Ayub%20Ommaya&f=false Focal Controlled Drug Delivery]''. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 175. ISBN 978-1-4614-9434-8.</ref> It is ''"a ventricular catheter with a mushroom-shaped dome for administration of intraventricular therapies"''.<ref name="DossaniKalakoti2017"/> The invention was spurred by the necessity of ''"providing a better channel for intraventricular therapies to his patients with brain infections and cancer...[i]n an effort to save his patients the morbidity and discomfort of serial lumbar punctures"''.<ref name="DossaniKalakoti2017"/> It is used by oncologists/infectious disease physicians specialising in intrathecal administration.<ref name="DossaniKalakoti2017"/>
**Ommaya published over 200 research pieces in his lifetime.<ref name="Herrmann2004">Robert Herrmann (2004). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NExYEZE4BHQC&pg=PA243&dq=Ayub+K.+Ommaya&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjkreiYwMTiAhU1rXEKHadVBFQQ6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=Ayub%20K.%20Ommaya&f=false Sir John Templeton: Supporting Scientific Research For Spiritual Discoveries]''. Templeton Foundation Press. p. 243. ISBN 978-1-932031-68-3.</ref> He was also informally known as the ''"singing surgeon"'' as he had a fondness for singing both before and after surgeries.<ref name="wisdom">''[www.twf.org/bio/AKOmmaya.html Dr. Ayub Khan Ommaya, Leading Neurosurgeon and Inventor, Dead at 78]''. The Wisdom Fund. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20111217054830/http://www.twf.org/bio/AKOmmaya.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 31st, 2019.</ref><ref name="Stoltman2017">Joan Stoltman (15 July 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=52FiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17&dq=Ayub+Ommaya&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj4pab2wsTiAhV8XRUIHU0UDXAQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=Ayub%20Ommaya&f=false Gareth's Guide to Becoming a Brain Surgeon]''. Gareth Stevens Publishing LLLP. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-5382-0361-3.</ref> His other contributions include proposing the idea that consciousness is a type of human emotion rather than it being intimately woven with reason; suggesting the emotional core of the brain is responsible for controlling the nervous system and its responses.<ref name="Cytowic2003">Richard E. Cytowic (2003). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EvA5xS-qKR8C&pg=PA196&dq=Ayub+Ommaya&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj4pab2wsTiAhV8XRUIHU0UDXAQ6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=Ayub%20Ommaya&f=false The Man Who Tasted Shapes]''. MIT Press. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-262-53255-6.</ref> It is perhaps even more interesting in that Ommaya wanted to return to Pakistan after he graduated and did indeed apply for a job but was unfortunately rejected.<ref name="DossaniKalakoti2017"/>
**Ommaya graduated from the King Edward Medical College in Lahore, Pakistan in 1953 (where he won the College's gold medal for academic achievement), before he won a scholarship as a Rhodes Scholar and attended the University of Oxford at Balliol College in 1954.<ref name="DossaniKalakoti2017"/> He then received his training at the Morriston Hospital in Wales for two years before embarking back to the University of Oxford to work on his PhD in Clinical Biochemistry.<ref name="DossaniKalakoti2017"/> By 1964 he was appointed as the Hunterian Professor of Surgery at the Royal College of Surgeons.<ref name="DossaniKalakoti2017"/> He was cited in 3,212 scientific publications between 1962—2004.<ref name="DossaniKalakoti2017"/>

*'''Pleura-peritoneal Shunt'''—Sayed Amjad Hussain (1937—Present<ref name="Bangash1993">Ghulam Taqi Bangash (1993). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GD5rAAAAMAAJ&q=Sayed+Amjad+Hussain+1937&dq=Sayed+Amjad+Hussain+1937&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwijwfvZ0K_kAhUQT8AKHcw_B-oQ6AEIKjAA History of Khyber Medical College, and its related institutions]''. Dept. of History, University of Peshawar. p. 419.</ref>) was the first to invent<ref name="halloffame">''[http://www.mmhof.org/bios/SAmjadHussain.html S. Amjad Hussain, MD, FRCSC, FACS]''. The Global Medical Mission Hall of Fame Foundation. The University of Toledo. ''[http://archive.is/ZZpwz#selection-87.0-94.0 Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved August 9th, 2019.</ref> the pleura-peritoneal shunt in 1986.<ref name="Hussain, S. Amjad (1986).">Hussain, S. Amjad (1986). ''[https://www.annalsthoracicsurgery.org/article/S0003-4975(10)63071-8/pdf Pleuroperitoneal Shunt in Recurrent Pleural Effusions]''. The Annals of Thoracic Surgery. 41 (6): 609–611. doi:10.1016/S0003-4975(10)63071-8. ISSN 0003-4975.</ref> In 2012 he was indicted into the University of Toledo, Texas, ''Medical Mission Hall of Fame'', which is an award to ''"honor those individuals and organisations who have made significant and substantial contributions to advancing the medical well-being of people"''.<ref name="halloffame"/><ref name="tribunesah">''[https://tribune.com.pk/story/378986/illustrious-pakistani-doctor-inducted-into-medical-hall-of-fame/ Illustrious Pakistani doctor inducted into Medical Hall of Fame]''. May 15th, 2012. The Express Tribune. ''[http://archive.is/pdiw2 Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved August 9th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Fawzia Reza (14 December 2015).">Fawzia Reza (14 December 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4pbwCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA39&dq=S.+Amjad+Hussain+invented&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjLwu6pg_bjAhUOYcAKHSeKAuUQ6AEIOTAD#v=onepage&q=S.%20Amjad%20Hussain%20invented&f=false The Effects of the September 11 Terrorist Attack on Pakistani-American Parental Involvement in U.S. Schools]''. Lexington Books. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-4985-0861-2.</ref> Hussain was a direct survivor of the [[Muslim, Sikh and Hindu Death Toll in the 1947 Partition|1947 massacres of Muslims in the Punjab by Sikhs and Hindus]], and who was then only 9 years old.<ref name="Jack Lessenberry (July 16th, 2017).">Jack Lessenberry (July 16th, 2017). ''[https://www.toledoblade.com/a-e/books/2017/07/16/Toledo-surgeon-Sayed-Amjad-Hussain-chronicles-an-amazing-life/stories/20170715168 Toledo surgeon chronicles an amazing life]''. The Toledo Blade. ''[http://archive.is/I1RKd Archive.is]''. Retrieved August 9th, 2019.</ref>
**One of the uses of his device is in treating pleural effusion in ''chylothorax''.<ref name="Archith Boloor; Ramadas Nayak (30 September 2018).">Archith Boloor; Ramadas Nayak (30 September 2018). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aq52DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA320&dq=%22pleura-peritoneal+shunt%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi3yN3ig_bjAhXBShUIHUi4AOUQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=%22pleura-peritoneal%20shunt%22&f=false Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Medicine]''. JP Medical Ltd. p. 319-320. ISBN 978-93-5270-494-1.</ref>

[[File:Web-iga-i-gel-airway-1 result.jpg|thumb|120px|left|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:90%;">I-gel SAD device, invented in 2002.</div>]]
[[File:Vgel.jpg|thumb|120px|left|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:90%;">V-gel SAD device.<ref name="techsheet">''[https://docsinnovent.com/downloads/v-gel_Tech_Sheet-med.pdf v-gel® advanced veterinary airway management system (v-gel Tech Sheet)]''. March 23rd, 2012. Docinnovent. p. 1-4. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20200308004533/https://docsinnovent.com/downloads/v-gel_Tech_Sheet-med.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 8th, 2020.</ref></div>]]
::::::*'''I-Gel Supraglottic Airway Rescue Device'''—Muhammed Aslam Nasir (1961—Present<ref name="Subrahmanyan Radhakrishna (2015).">Subrahmanyan Radhakrishna (2015). ''[https://das.uk.com/content/2015-das-medal-mohammed-nasir 2015 DAS Medal - Mohammed Nasir]''. Difficult Airway Society. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20200120034215/https://das.uk.com/content/2015-das-medal-mohammed-nasir WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved January 20th, 2020.</ref>) was the first to invent the ''[https://www.intersurgical.com/info/igel I-Gel Supraglottic Airway]'' rescue device (SAD; a video ''[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ao-Sb_OulE8 demonstrating it can seen here]'').<ref name="">Asai T.; Liu EH (2010). ''[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20560393 <nowiki>[The i-gel, a new supraglottic airway]</nowiki>]''. Language English (Original: Japanese). Masui. 2010 Jun;59(6):794-7. PMID: 20560393.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"The i-gel, invented by Muhammed Aslam Nasir, is a new supraglottic airway, consisting of a mask and a tube. One notable feature of the i-gel is that the rim of the mask is designed to conform to the anatomical shape of the larynx. This enables the device to provide an airtight seal without the cuff mechanism. The mask is made of styrene ethylene butadiene styrene (SEBS), and changes its form, based on each patient's laryngeal anatomy. The tube consists of a breathing and a drain tube. It is possible to intubate the trachea through the breathing tube, and to insert a gastric tube through the drain tube"''.
#Asai T.; Liu EH (2010). ''[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20560393 <nowiki>[The i-gel, a new supraglottic airway]</nowiki>]''. Language English (Original: Japanese). Masui. 2010 Jun;59(6):794-7. PMID: 20560393.</ref><ref name="Hagberg2012"/><ref name="SuhitharanTeoh2013">Suhitharan, T; Teoh, WendyH. L. (2013). ''"[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3858696/ Use of extraglottic airways in patients undergoing ambulatory laparoscopic surgery without the need for tracheal intubation]"''. Saudi Journal of Anaesthesia. 7 (4): 436. doi:10.4103/1658-354X.121081. ISSN 1658-354X.</ref> The device has been so pivotal that it is currently used in at least 90 countries worldwide (as of 2017 it is used at a rate of 5 times per minute; meaning that every five minutes 25 people have had to use the device in order for their lives to be saved).<ref name="Murtaza Ali Shah (January 24th, 2017).">Murtaza Ali Shah (January 24th, 2017). ''[https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/181392-British-Pakistani-doctors-innovation-being-used-in-over-90-countries British Pakistani doctor’s innovation being used in over 90 countries]''. The News International. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20200120035910/https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/181392-British-Pakistani-doctors-innovation-being-used-in-over-90-countries WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved January 20th, 2020.</ref> In medicine it has been praised for having acquired a ''"reputation for ease of insertion, minimal stimulation, good performance and excellent tolerance"''.<ref name="Hagberg2012"/>
::::::**It was released to the public in 2007,<ref name="Hagberg2012"/> with '''paediatric designs''' released in 2009.<ref name="Hagberg2012"/> It has been extensively studied in numerous peer reviewed trials involving clinical treatment since it's inception and its efficacy is considered remarkable.<ref name="Hagberg2017">Carin A. Hagberg (9 October 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1qE5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA364&dq=Supraglottic+Airway,+I-Gel+MuhammedNasir&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwijqIyGjoXoAhUTesAKHSrvDosQ6AEINDAB#v=onepage&q=Supraglottic%20Airway%2C%20I-Gel%20MuhammedNasir&f=false Hagberg and Benumof's Airway Management E-Book]''. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 364–367. ISBN 978-0-323-44918-2.</ref> Additionally, there are seven different sizes of the device available on the market (ranging in sizes of 1—5) which can be used from birth onward, including very obese adults.<ref name="Hagberg2017"/> It hasn't ever required any modification since it's release.<ref name="Hagberg2012">Carin A. Hagberg (24 September 2012). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=RQ0qfOuDA4EC&pg=PA495 Benumof and Hagberg's Airway Management E-Book]''. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 495–499. ISBN 1-4557-3810-7.</ref>
::::::***Unlike previous SAD devices, the i-gel ''"does not use inflatable cuffs to achieve a seal of the esophagus and pharyngeal structures"'',<ref name="ASTNAHolleran2009">ASTNA; Renee S. Holleran (10 September 2009). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H8pgFPv9-W4C&pg=PA205&dq=Supraglottic+Airway,+I-Gel&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj6n6fUjYXoAhVxQkEAHX_oCPg4ChDoAQhQMAU#v=onepage&q=Supraglottic%20Airway%2C%20I-Gel&f=false ASTNA Patient Transport - E-Book: Principles and Practice]''. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 205. ISBN 0-323-06613-5.</ref> giving it a major advantage. It was designed using medical-grade thermoplastic which produces its gel like feel (the plastic itself is styrene ethylene butadine styrene).<ref name="ASTNAHolleran2009"/> Additionally it is designed to incorporate a bite block and a gastric channel which allows medical professionals to pass a gauge suction catheter through it.<ref name="ASTNAHolleran2009"/> It is specifically designed anatomically to fit snugly into the perilaryngeal structures, ''"essentially mirroring the supralaryngeal anatomy"''.<ref name="ASTNAHolleran2009"/>
::::::**Nasir first conceived of the idea whilst working at a Karachi hospital in Pakistan (in the 1990s<ref name="Emine Aslanlar (2018)."/>).<ref name="Murtaza Ali Shah (January 24th, 2017)."/> He enlisted the help of one of his teachers at the Nishtar Medical College to help bring this idea to fruition.<ref name="Murtaza Ali Shah (January 24th, 2017)."/> Later, he moved to the UK to work at the British military's Royal Air Force Hospitals and NHS Trusts to finance his invention.<ref name="Murtaza Ali Shah (January 24th, 2017)."/> He specifically started researching the product more intensively in 2002 whilst he was working at the NHS Luton and Dunstable hospital trust.<ref name="dunstabletoday">''[https://www.dunstabletoday.co.uk/news/people/luton-doctor-scoops-macewan-medal-1-7115211 Luton Doctor scoops Macewan medal]''. December 14th, 2015. Dunstable Today (Dunstable Gazette Herald & Post). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20200307233743/https://www.dunstabletoday.co.uk/news/people/luton-doctor-scoops-macewan-medal-1-7115211 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 7th, 2020.</ref> After selling his investments, draining his savings and using further experience he had gained on anaesthesia wards, he finally invented the device.<ref name="Murtaza Ali Shah (January 24th, 2017)."/>
::::::***He is also the inventor of '''v-gel''', a veterinary ''[https://docsinnovent.com/products/product/rabbit-v-gel#desc-tab version]'' of the i-gel device.<ref name="Subrahmanyan Radhakrishna (2015)."/><ref name="docsinvent">''[https://docsinnovent.com/about/dr-muhammed-aslam-nasir Dr Muhammed Aslam Nasir (v-gel®, the first ever veterinary specific supraglottic airway product for anaesthesia & resuscitation)]''. Docs Invent. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20200120035117/https://docsinnovent.com/about/dr-muhammed-aslam-nasir WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved January 20th, 2020.</ref> It was developed initially for use in rabbits and cats.<ref name="Emine Aslanlar (2018).">Emine Aslanlar (2018). ''[https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e910/2542f02edff16f83eae1480dfa78536f2a66.pdf Review of Supraglottic Airway Devices (SAD)]''. Scholars Journal of Applied Medical Sciences (SJAMS). p. 2088-2093. ''[https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e910/2542f02edff16f83eae1480dfa78536f2a66.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 7th, 2020.</ref> It was designed in particular for cats because cats are twice as likely to die under anaesthesia than dogs.<ref name="Deborah Richardson (September 2nd, 2015).">Deborah Richardson (September 2nd, 2015). ''[https://www.theveterinarynurse.com/research/article/a-comparison-of-the-v-gel-supraglottic-airway-device-and-non-cuffed-endotracheal-tube-in-the-time-to-first-capnograph-trace-during-anaesthetic-induction-in-rabbits A comparison of the v-gel® supraglottic airway device and non-cuffed endotracheal tube in the time to first capnograph trace during anaesthetic induction in rabbits]''. The Veterinary Nurse. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20200308002139/https://www.theveterinarynurse.com/research/article/a-comparison-of-the-v-gel-supraglottic-airway-device-and-non-cuffed-endotracheal-tube-in-the-time-to-first-capnograph-trace-during-anaesthetic-induction-in-rabbits WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 8th, 2020.</ref> It is considered ''"the first true veterinary species specific supraglottic airway device"''.<ref name="millpledge">''[http://www.millpledge.com/vgel-c6x13966364 v-gel® Cats & Rabbits]''. Millpledge Pharmaceuticals (Millpledge Veterinary). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20180214110645/http://www.millpledge.com/vgel-c6x13966364 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 8th, 2020.</ref> It has been awarded itself by organisations such as ''"International Cat Care"'' who lauded it's abilities to supercede traditional endotracheal intubation.<ref name="Holly Kernot (July 28th, 2016).">Holly Kernot (July 28th, 2016). ''[https://www.vettimes.co.uk/news/winners-celebrated-at-international-cat-care-awards/ Winners celebrated at International Cat Care Awards]''. Vet Times. ''[http://archive.is/wip/Cx6wW Archive.is Link]''. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20160808082257/http://www.vettimes.co.uk/news/winners-celebrated-at-international-cat-care-awards/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 8th, 2020.</ref> Although more expensive than conventional endotracheal intubation, it can be re-used forty times when sterilised through autoclaving.<ref name="ThomasLerche2016">John Alfred Thomas; Phillip Lerche (12 April 2016). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vDvdCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA296&dq=%22v-gel%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwifzZiB0InoAhUuUhUIHX7uA2QQ6AEIOTAC#v=onepage&q=%22v-gel%22&f=false Anesthesia and Analgesia for Veterinary Technicians]''. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 296. ISBN 978-0-323-24992-8.</ref>
::::::****Nasir is currently in the process of inventing v-gel versions for dogs and horses after the success of the cat and rabbit versions.<ref name="techsheet"/>
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'''[[#Astronomy & Universe (4)|Astronomy]]''' •
'''[[#Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)|Agriculture, Food & Beverage]]''' •
'''[[#Biology (2)|Biology]]''' (''[[#Paleontology (10)|Paleontology]]'') •
'''[[#Chemistry (5)|Chemistry]]''' •
'''[[#Computing (4)|Computing]]''' (''[[#Video-gaming (1)|Video-gaming]] • [[#Board Games (1)|Board-games]]'') •
'''[[#Mathematics (3)|Mathematics]]''' •
'''[[#Medicines (1)|Medicine]]''' (''[[#Disease Eradication (1)|Disease Eradication]]'' • ''[[#Genetics & Disease (5)|Genetics & Disease]]'' • ''[[#Medical Instruments (6)|Instruments]]'') •
'''[[#Physics (5)|Physics]]''' •
'''Engineering''' (''[[#Naval Engineering (1)|Naval]]'' • ''[[#Mechanical Engineering (7)|Mechanical]]'' • ''[[#Handtool Engineering (3)|Handtool]]'' • ''[[#Textile Engineering (3)|Textile]]'' (''[[#Clothing (2)|Clothing]]'') • ''[[#Architectural Engineering (4)|Architectural]]'') •
'''[[#Sport & Recreation (2)|Sport & Recreation]]''' •
'''[[#Disputed (2)|Disputed]]''' •
[[#Further Reading|Further Reading]] •
[[#Sources|Sources]] •
(''[[#Footnotes|Footnotes]]'' • ''[[#References|References]]'' • ''[[#Acknowledgements|Acknowledgements]]'') •
[[#External Links|External Links]] •
'''''Total Inventions & Discoveries Listed: 77'''''
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[List of Inventions and Discoveries in Medicine During the Islamic Golden Age|List of Inventions and Discoveries in Medicine During the Islamic Golden Age]]'''''
[[File:Neha stick.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">The Neha Stick. Used in Parkinson's Disease.</div>]]
*'''Catheter Mount, ''Non-Kink'''''—Ahmad Khan Jamil (1939—Present) was the first to invent the non-kink catheter mount.<ref name="Jamil1974">Jamil, A.K. (1974). ''[https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0007091217478317 NON-KINK CATHETER MOUNT]''. British Journal of Anaesthesia. 46 (8): 628. doi:10.1093/bja/46.8.628-a. ISSN 0007-0912.</ref> Catheter mounts are used in anaesthesia, but standard catheter mounts are problematic in that during their use they were often bent out of shape.<ref name="Jamil1974"/> Jamil at the time devised an ingenious method of producing non-kink catheter mounts which could be twisted 180 degrees without being dented.<ref name="Jamil1974"/> He developed this using a strong inner armour which prevented kinkage.<ref name="Jamil1974"/> This mount is used primarily in head, neck and neuro surgeries.
*'''Neha Smart Stick'''—The ''PD Walking Smart Stick'', ''Walk to Beat'' or the ''Neha Smart Stick'', was invented by Neha Chaudhary (1993<ref name="Ana Duarte on (June 17th, 2016).">Ana Duarte on (June 17th, 2016). ''[https://patient-innovation.com/post/1323 Smart cane for Parkinson's disease patients]''. Patient Innovation. ''[http://archive.is/T9QGc Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved July 18th, 2019.</ref>—Present) in the 2010s, in order to help patients who had Parkinson's Disease to walk (the disease itself affects 10 million people globally<ref name="Sana Jamal (September 28, 2017).">Sana Jamal (September 28, 2017). ''[https://gulfnews.com/world/asia/pakistan/young-pakistani-student-develops-innovative-stick-to-assist-parkinsons-patients-1.2097604 Young Pakistani student develops innovative stick to assist Parkinson’s patients]''. Gulf News. ''[http://archive.is/cq04v WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved July 18th, 2019.</ref>).<ref name="Sana Jamal (September 28, 2017)."/> In 2010 Chaudhary moved to the UK to start her degree in product design technology at the University of the West of England and developed the stick over a period of several months as part of her final year project.<ref name="Sana Jamal (September 28, 2017)."/> Her invention was driven by the suffering of her grandfather who struggled with Parkinson's for eight years.<ref name="Sana Jamal (September 28, 2017)."/> 
**The invention works by sending mild electrical signals through the hands and subsequently the body of those who suffer from Parkinson's.<ref name="Tristan Cork (15th June 2017).">Tristan Cork (15th June 2017). ''[https://www.bristolpost.co.uk/news/bristol-news/inventor-neha-chaudhry-allowed-stay-114610 Inventor Neha Chaudhry allowed to stay in Bristol after Home Office U-turn]''. Bristol Post. ''[http://archive.is/4L7Y6 Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved July 18th, 2019.</ref> This prevents patients from suffering from gait and freeze reactions that are common with the condition which leads to hard falls. The stick therefore allows patients to continue to be mobile without suffering from injuries arising from unpredictable falls. Put simply by one report ''"[h]er invention, Walk to Beat, uses sensors, which detect when a patient freezes and send rhythmic vibrations through its handle, to encourage smooth walking gait"''.<ref name="Almaz Ohene (21st June 2017).">Almaz Ohene (21st June 2017). ''[https://parkinsonslife.eu/parkinsons-walking-stick-inventor-entrepreneur-visa-home-office/ Parkinson’s walking stick inventor granted entrepreneur visa after Home Office U-turn]''. Parkinson's Life. ''[http://archive.is/HPzJQ Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved July 18th, 2019.</ref>

[[File:Ommaya reservoir.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:70%;">The Ommaya Reservoir, also known as the cerebrospinal fluid reservoir, was invented by Ayub K. Ommaya.</div>]]
*'''Ommaya Reservoir/Cerebrospinal Fluid Reservoir'''—In 1963, Ayub K. Ommaya (1930—2008<ref name="DossaniKalakoti2017">Dossani, Rimal Hanif; Kalakoti, Piyush; Thakur, Jai Deep; Nanda, Anil (2017). ''[https://academic.oup.com/neurosurgery/article-abstract/80/2/324/2691306?redirectedFrom=fulltext Ayub Khan Ommaya (1930-2008): Legacy and Contributions to Neurosurgery]''. Neurosurgery. 80 (2): 324–330. doi:10.1093/neuros/nyw031. ISSN 0148-396X.</ref>) became the first to invent the cerebrospinal fluid reservoir (''"Ommaya Reservoir"'').<ref name="DombKhan2014">Abraham J. Domb; Wahid Khan (17 February 2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R4S8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA175&dq=Ayub+Ommaya&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj4pab2wsTiAhV8XRUIHU0UDXAQ6AEIPDAD#v=onepage&q=Ayub%20Ommaya&f=false Focal Controlled Drug Delivery]''. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 175. ISBN 978-1-4614-9434-8.</ref> It is ''"a ventricular catheter with a mushroom-shaped dome for administration of intraventricular therapies"''.<ref name="DossaniKalakoti2017"/> The invention was spurred by the necessity of ''"providing a better channel for intraventricular therapies to his patients with brain infections and cancer...[i]n an effort to save his patients the morbidity and discomfort of serial lumbar punctures"''.<ref name="DossaniKalakoti2017"/> It is used by oncologists/infectious disease physicians specialising in intrathecal administration.<ref name="DossaniKalakoti2017"/>
**Ommaya published over 200 research pieces in his lifetime.<ref name="Herrmann2004">Robert Herrmann (2004). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NExYEZE4BHQC&pg=PA243&dq=Ayub+K.+Ommaya&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjkreiYwMTiAhU1rXEKHadVBFQQ6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=Ayub%20K.%20Ommaya&f=false Sir John Templeton: Supporting Scientific Research For Spiritual Discoveries]''. Templeton Foundation Press. p. 243. ISBN 978-1-932031-68-3.</ref> He was also informally known as the ''"singing surgeon"'' as he had a fondness for singing both before and after surgeries.<ref name="wisdom">''[www.twf.org/bio/AKOmmaya.html Dr. Ayub Khan Ommaya, Leading Neurosurgeon and Inventor, Dead at 78]''. The Wisdom Fund. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20111217054830/http://www.twf.org/bio/AKOmmaya.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 31st, 2019.</ref><ref name="Stoltman2017">Joan Stoltman (15 July 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=52FiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17&dq=Ayub+Ommaya&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj4pab2wsTiAhV8XRUIHU0UDXAQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=Ayub%20Ommaya&f=false Gareth's Guide to Becoming a Brain Surgeon]''. Gareth Stevens Publishing LLLP. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-5382-0361-3.</ref> His other contributions include proposing the idea that consciousness is a type of human emotion rather than it being intimately woven with reason; suggesting the emotional core of the brain is responsible for controlling the nervous system and its responses.<ref name="Cytowic2003">Richard E. Cytowic (2003). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EvA5xS-qKR8C&pg=PA196&dq=Ayub+Ommaya&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj4pab2wsTiAhV8XRUIHU0UDXAQ6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=Ayub%20Ommaya&f=false The Man Who Tasted Shapes]''. MIT Press. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-262-53255-6.</ref> It is perhaps even more interesting in that Ommaya wanted to return to Pakistan after he graduated and did indeed apply for a job but was unfortunately rejected.<ref name="DossaniKalakoti2017"/>
**Ommaya graduated from the King Edward Medical College in Lahore, Pakistan in 1953 (where he won the College's gold medal for academic achievement), before he won a scholarship as a Rhodes Scholar and attended the University of Oxford at Balliol College in 1954.<ref name="DossaniKalakoti2017"/> He then received his training at the Morriston Hospital in Wales for two years before embarking back to the University of Oxford to work on his PhD in Clinical Biochemistry.<ref name="DossaniKalakoti2017"/> By 1964 he was appointed as the Hunterian Professor of Surgery at the Royal College of Surgeons.<ref name="DossaniKalakoti2017"/> He was cited in 3,212 scientific publications between 1962—2004.<ref name="DossaniKalakoti2017"/>

*'''Pleura-peritoneal Shunt'''—Sayed Amjad Hussain (1937—Present<ref name="Bangash1993">Ghulam Taqi Bangash (1993). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GD5rAAAAMAAJ&q=Sayed+Amjad+Hussain+1937&dq=Sayed+Amjad+Hussain+1937&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwijwfvZ0K_kAhUQT8AKHcw_B-oQ6AEIKjAA History of Khyber Medical College, and its related institutions]''. Dept. of History, University of Peshawar. p. 419.</ref>) was the first to invent<ref name="halloffame">''[http://www.mmhof.org/bios/SAmjadHussain.html S. Amjad Hussain, MD, FRCSC, FACS]''. The Global Medical Mission Hall of Fame Foundation. The University of Toledo. ''[http://archive.is/ZZpwz#selection-87.0-94.0 Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved August 9th, 2019.</ref> the pleura-peritoneal shunt in 1986.<ref name="Hussain, S. Amjad (1986).">Hussain, S. Amjad (1986). ''[https://www.annalsthoracicsurgery.org/article/S0003-4975(10)63071-8/pdf Pleuroperitoneal Shunt in Recurrent Pleural Effusions]''. The Annals of Thoracic Surgery. 41 (6): 609–611. doi:10.1016/S0003-4975(10)63071-8. ISSN 0003-4975.</ref> In 2012 he was indicted into the University of Toledo, Texas, ''Medical Mission Hall of Fame'', which is an award to ''"honor those individuals and organisations who have made significant and substantial contributions to advancing the medical well-being of people"''.<ref name="halloffame"/><ref name="tribunesah">''[https://tribune.com.pk/story/378986/illustrious-pakistani-doctor-inducted-into-medical-hall-of-fame/ Illustrious Pakistani doctor inducted into Medical Hall of Fame]''. May 15th, 2012. The Express Tribune. ''[http://archive.is/pdiw2 Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved August 9th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Fawzia Reza (14 December 2015).">Fawzia Reza (14 December 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4pbwCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA39&dq=S.+Amjad+Hussain+invented&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjLwu6pg_bjAhUOYcAKHSeKAuUQ6AEIOTAD#v=onepage&q=S.%20Amjad%20Hussain%20invented&f=false The Effects of the September 11 Terrorist Attack on Pakistani-American Parental Involvement in U.S. Schools]''. Lexington Books. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-4985-0861-2.</ref> Hussain was a direct survivor of the [[Muslim, Sikh and Hindu Death Toll in the 1947 Partition|1947 massacres of Muslims in the Punjab by Sikhs and Hindus]], and who was then only 9 years old.<ref name="Jack Lessenberry (July 16th, 2017).">Jack Lessenberry (July 16th, 2017). ''[https://www.toledoblade.com/a-e/books/2017/07/16/Toledo-surgeon-Sayed-Amjad-Hussain-chronicles-an-amazing-life/stories/20170715168 Toledo surgeon chronicles an amazing life]''. The Toledo Blade. ''[http://archive.is/I1RKd Archive.is]''. Retrieved August 9th, 2019.</ref>
**One of the uses of his device is in treating pleural effusion in ''chylothorax''.<ref name="Archith Boloor; Ramadas Nayak (30 September 2018).">Archith Boloor; Ramadas Nayak (30 September 2018). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aq52DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA320&dq=%22pleura-peritoneal+shunt%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi3yN3ig_bjAhXBShUIHUi4AOUQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=%22pleura-peritoneal%20shunt%22&f=false Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Medicine]''. JP Medical Ltd. p. 319-320. ISBN 978-93-5270-494-1.</ref>

[[File:Web-iga-i-gel-airway-1 result.jpg|thumb|1000px|center|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:90%;">I-gel SAD device, invented in 2002.</div>]]
[[File:Vgel.jpg|thumb|1000px|center|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:90%;">V-gel SAD device.<ref name="techsheet">''[https://docsinnovent.com/downloads/v-gel_Tech_Sheet-med.pdf v-gel® advanced veterinary airway management system (v-gel Tech Sheet)]''. March 23rd, 2012. Docinnovent. p. 1-4. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20200308004533/https://docsinnovent.com/downloads/v-gel_Tech_Sheet-med.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 8th, 2020.</ref></div>]]
*'''I-Gel Supraglottic Airway Rescue Device'''—Muhammed Aslam Nasir (1961—Present<ref name="Subrahmanyan Radhakrishna (2015).">Subrahmanyan Radhakrishna (2015). ''[https://das.uk.com/content/2015-das-medal-mohammed-nasir 2015 DAS Medal - Mohammed Nasir]''. Difficult Airway Society. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20200120034215/https://das.uk.com/content/2015-das-medal-mohammed-nasir WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved January 20th, 2020.</ref>) was the first to invent the ''[https://www.intersurgical.com/info/igel I-Gel Supraglottic Airway]'' rescue device (SAD; a video ''[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ao-Sb_OulE8 demonstrating it can seen here]'').<ref name="">Asai T.; Liu EH (2010). ''[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20560393 <nowiki>[The i-gel, a new supraglottic airway]</nowiki>]''. Language English (Original: Japanese). Masui. 2010 Jun;59(6):794-7. PMID: 20560393.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"The i-gel, invented by Muhammed Aslam Nasir, is a new supraglottic airway, consisting of a mask and a tube. One notable feature of the i-gel is that the rim of the mask is designed to conform to the anatomical shape of the larynx. This enables the device to provide an airtight seal without the cuff mechanism. The mask is made of styrene ethylene butadiene styrene (SEBS), and changes its form, based on each patient's laryngeal anatomy. The tube consists of a breathing and a drain tube. It is possible to intubate the trachea through the breathing tube, and to insert a gastric tube through the drain tube"''.
#Asai T.; Liu EH (2010). ''[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20560393 <nowiki>[The i-gel, a new supraglottic airway]</nowiki>]''. Language English (Original: Japanese). Masui. 2010 Jun;59(6):794-7. PMID: 20560393.</ref><ref name="Hagberg2012"/><ref name="SuhitharanTeoh2013">Suhitharan, T; Teoh, WendyH. L. (2013). ''"[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3858696/ Use of extraglottic airways in patients undergoing ambulatory laparoscopic surgery without the need for tracheal intubation]"''. Saudi Journal of Anaesthesia. 7 (4): 436. doi:10.4103/1658-354X.121081. ISSN 1658-354X.</ref> The device has been so pivotal that it is currently used in at least 90 countries worldwide (as of 2017 it is used at a rate of 5 times per minute; meaning that every five minutes 25 people have had to use the device in order for their lives to be saved).<ref name="Murtaza Ali Shah (January 24th, 2017).">Murtaza Ali Shah (January 24th, 2017). ''[https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/181392-British-Pakistani-doctors-innovation-being-used-in-over-90-countries British Pakistani doctor’s innovation being used in over 90 countries]''. The News International. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20200120035910/https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/181392-British-Pakistani-doctors-innovation-being-used-in-over-90-countries WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved January 20th, 2020.</ref> In medicine it has been praised for having acquired a ''"reputation for ease of insertion, minimal stimulation, good performance and excellent tolerance"''.<ref name="Hagberg2012"/>
**It was released to the public in 2007,<ref name="Hagberg2012"/> with '''paediatric designs''' released in 2009.<ref name="Hagberg2012"/> It has been extensively studied in numerous peer reviewed trials involving clinical treatment since it's inception and its efficacy is considered remarkable.<ref name="Hagberg2017">Carin A. Hagberg (9 October 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1qE5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA364&dq=Supraglottic+Airway,+I-Gel+MuhammedNasir&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwijqIyGjoXoAhUTesAKHSrvDosQ6AEINDAB#v=onepage&q=Supraglottic%20Airway%2C%20I-Gel%20MuhammedNasir&f=false Hagberg and Benumof's Airway Management E-Book]''. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 364–367. ISBN 978-0-323-44918-2.</ref> Additionally, there are seven different sizes of the device available on the market (ranging in sizes of 1—5) which can be used from birth onward, including very obese adults.<ref name="Hagberg2017"/> It hasn't ever required any modification since it's release.<ref name="Hagberg2012">Carin A. Hagberg (24 September 2012). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=RQ0qfOuDA4EC&pg=PA495 Benumof and Hagberg's Airway Management E-Book]''. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 495–499. ISBN 1-4557-3810-7.</ref>
***Unlike previous SAD devices, the i-gel ''"does not use inflatable cuffs to achieve a seal of the esophagus and pharyngeal structures"'',<ref name="ASTNAHolleran2009">ASTNA; Renee S. Holleran (10 September 2009). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H8pgFPv9-W4C&pg=PA205&dq=Supraglottic+Airway,+I-Gel&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj6n6fUjYXoAhVxQkEAHX_oCPg4ChDoAQhQMAU#v=onepage&q=Supraglottic%20Airway%2C%20I-Gel&f=false ASTNA Patient Transport - E-Book: Principles and Practice]''. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 205. ISBN 0-323-06613-5.</ref> giving it a major advantage. It was designed using medical-grade thermoplastic which produces its gel like feel (the plastic itself is styrene ethylene butadine styrene).<ref name="ASTNAHolleran2009"/> Additionally it is designed to incorporate a bite block and a gastric channel which allows medical professionals to pass a gauge suction catheter through it.<ref name="ASTNAHolleran2009"/> It is specifically designed anatomically to fit snugly into the perilaryngeal structures, ''"essentially mirroring the supralaryngeal anatomy"''.<ref name="ASTNAHolleran2009"/>
**Nasir first conceived of the idea whilst working at a Karachi hospital in Pakistan (in the 1990s<ref name="Emine Aslanlar (2018)."/>).<ref name="Murtaza Ali Shah (January 24th, 2017)."/> He enlisted the help of one of his teachers at the Nishtar Medical College to help bring this idea to fruition.<ref name="Murtaza Ali Shah (January 24th, 2017)."/> Later, he moved to the UK to work at the British military's Royal Air Force Hospitals and NHS Trusts to finance his invention.<ref name="Murtaza Ali Shah (January 24th, 2017)."/> He specifically started researching the product more intensively in 2002 whilst he was working at the NHS Luton and Dunstable hospital trust.<ref name="dunstabletoday">''[https://www.dunstabletoday.co.uk/news/people/luton-doctor-scoops-macewan-medal-1-7115211 Luton Doctor scoops Macewan medal]''. December 14th, 2015. Dunstable Today (Dunstable Gazette Herald & Post). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20200307233743/https://www.dunstabletoday.co.uk/news/people/luton-doctor-scoops-macewan-medal-1-7115211 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 7th, 2020.</ref> After selling his investments, draining his savings and using further experience he had gained on anaesthesia wards, he finally invented the device.<ref name="Murtaza Ali Shah (January 24th, 2017)."/>
***He is also the inventor of '''v-gel''', a veterinary ''[https://docsinnovent.com/products/product/rabbit-v-gel#desc-tab version]'' of the i-gel device.<ref name="Subrahmanyan Radhakrishna (2015)."/><ref name="docsinvent">''[https://docsinnovent.com/about/dr-muhammed-aslam-nasir Dr Muhammed Aslam Nasir (v-gel®, the first ever veterinary specific supraglottic airway product for anaesthesia & resuscitation)]''. Docs Invent. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20200120035117/https://docsinnovent.com/about/dr-muhammed-aslam-nasir WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved January 20th, 2020.</ref> It was developed initially for use in rabbits and cats.<ref name="Emine Aslanlar (2018).">Emine Aslanlar (2018). ''[https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e910/2542f02edff16f83eae1480dfa78536f2a66.pdf Review of Supraglottic Airway Devices (SAD)]''. Scholars Journal of Applied Medical Sciences (SJAMS). p. 2088-2093. ''[https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e910/2542f02edff16f83eae1480dfa78536f2a66.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 7th, 2020.</ref> It was designed in particular for cats because cats are twice as likely to die under anaesthesia than dogs.<ref name="Deborah Richardson (September 2nd, 2015).">Deborah Richardson (September 2nd, 2015). ''[https://www.theveterinarynurse.com/research/article/a-comparison-of-the-v-gel-supraglottic-airway-device-and-non-cuffed-endotracheal-tube-in-the-time-to-first-capnograph-trace-during-anaesthetic-induction-in-rabbits A comparison of the v-gel® supraglottic airway device and non-cuffed endotracheal tube in the time to first capnograph trace during anaesthetic induction in rabbits]''. The Veterinary Nurse. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20200308002139/https://www.theveterinarynurse.com/research/article/a-comparison-of-the-v-gel-supraglottic-airway-device-and-non-cuffed-endotracheal-tube-in-the-time-to-first-capnograph-trace-during-anaesthetic-induction-in-rabbits WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 8th, 2020.</ref> It is considered ''"the first true veterinary species specific supraglottic airway device"''.<ref name="millpledge">''[http://www.millpledge.com/vgel-c6x13966364 v-gel® Cats & Rabbits]''. Millpledge Pharmaceuticals (Millpledge Veterinary). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20180214110645/http://www.millpledge.com/vgel-c6x13966364 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 8th, 2020.</ref> It has been awarded itself by organisations such as ''"International Cat Care"'' who lauded it's abilities to supercede traditional endotracheal intubation.<ref name="Holly Kernot (July 28th, 2016).">Holly Kernot (July 28th, 2016). ''[https://www.vettimes.co.uk/news/winners-celebrated-at-international-cat-care-awards/ Winners celebrated at International Cat Care Awards]''. Vet Times. ''[http://archive.is/wip/Cx6wW Archive.is Link]''. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20160808082257/http://www.vettimes.co.uk/news/winners-celebrated-at-international-cat-care-awards/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 8th, 2020.</ref> Although more expensive than conventional endotracheal intubation, it can be re-used forty times when sterilised through autoclaving.<ref name="ThomasLerche2016">John Alfred Thomas; Phillip Lerche (12 April 2016). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vDvdCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA296&dq=%22v-gel%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwifzZiB0InoAhUuUhUIHX7uA2QQ6AEIOTAC#v=onepage&q=%22v-gel%22&f=false Anesthesia and Analgesia for Veterinary Technicians]''. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 296. ISBN 978-0-323-24992-8.</ref>
****Nasir is currently in the process of inventing v-gel versions for dogs and horses after the success of the cat and rabbit versions.<ref name="techsheet"/>
</div>
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===Physics (5)===
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[Project-706/726 Pakistani Nuclear Weapons Project]]'''''
[[File:Comparison.jpg|right|140px|]]
*'''Heavy Water Probe (SBM)'''—In the 1970's, Pakistani scientist Sultan B. Mahmood (c. 19??<ref name="unbirth">''[https://www.un.org/press/en/2001/afg176.doc.htm SECURITY COUNCIL COMMITTEE CONCERNING AFGHANISTAN ISSUES FIRST ADDENDUM TO ITS NEW CONSOLIDATED LIST]''. United Nations (UN). 26 December 2001. ''[http://archive.is/W9Hsv Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved July 18th, 2019.</ref>—Present) invented the SBM Probe.<ref name="bfas">''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iuPaAAAAMAAJ&q=SBM+probe+heavy+water&dq=SBM+probe+heavy+water&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjglcuphr_jAhVzQkEAHTe3BMkQ6AEIMDAB Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]''. Atomic Scientists of Chicago. Volume 59. 2003. p. 50.</ref> This device was capable of detecting heavy water leaks through steam pipes.<ref name="bfas"/> Mahmood patented the device in the West (in Canada).<ref name="bfas"/> The device's invention can be traced to the fact that during the development of Pakistan's nuclear programme, heavy water was being bought from Canada, which was expensive.<ref name="Khan2012sbmprobe">Feroz Khan (7 November 2012). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yGgrNAsKZjEC&pg=PA109&dq=SBM+probe+heavy+water&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiO78ahhr_jAhXJMMAKHXkyDnMQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=SBM%20probe%20heavy%20water&f=false Eating Grass: The Making of the Pakistani Bomb]''. Stanford University Press. pp. 108–109. ISBN 978-0-8047-8480-1.</ref> Pakistan could not afford to waste such a resource to leaks.<ref name="Khan2012sbmprobe"/> Since foreign assistance at preventing these leaks was non-existent, Pakistan was forced to innovate.<ref name="Khan2012sbmprobe"/>
**Heavy water—not be confused with hard water or tritiated water—is a type of liquid that contains deuterium ions in the form of deuterium oxide or deuterium protium oxide.<ref name="Hubbell2011">M. W. Hubbell (28 July 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nOw4raXFeS8C&pg=PA266&dq=%22what+is+heavy+water%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiQsLuojb_jAhXtQkEAHceBBi8Q6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=%22what%20is%20heavy%20water%22&f=false The Fundamentals of Nuclear Power Generation: Questions & Answers]''. Author House. p. 266. ISBN 978-1-4634-2658-3.</ref> In other words it is highly enriched water and can contain up to 100% deuterium oxide.<ref name="Hubbell2011"/> This type of water has a different bond energy and thus its physical, chemical and biological properties are also different to conventional water.<ref name="Hubbell2011"/> Pakistan was using this water as a modulator and coolant.<ref name="Khan2012sbmprobe"/>
**Despite his genius, Mahmood holds several strange beliefs that have lead to be ridiculed or have lead him to trouble with state authorities.<ref name="Dennis Overbye, James Glanz (November 2nd, 2001).">Dennis Overbye, James Glanz (November 2nd, 2001). ''[https://www.nytimes.com/2001/11/02/world/nation-challenged-nuclear-fears-pakistani-atomic-expert-arrested-last-week-had.html]''. The New York Times. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190718181958/https://www.nytimes.com/2001/11/02/world/nation-challenged-nuclear-fears-pakistani-atomic-expert-arrested-last-week-had.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved July 18th, 2019.</ref> One of these is in his belief that djinns—unseen beings made of fire according to Islam—can be used to harvest energy, and another being that the Taliban—an Afghan based fundamentalist Muslim group who fought and won against the Soviets in the 1980's—are the way forward for Pakistan.<ref name="Dennis Overbye, James Glanz (November 2nd, 2001)."/>
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|[[File:98239027 47061423-4245-4172-a23d-4260d2419d3f.jpg|thumb|right|140px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Honeycomb structure; electricity in oil.</div>]]
|[[File:Ionicwind.jpg|thumb|right|140px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Photograph of the ions. Note the ionic wind pattern.</div>]]
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*'''Electric Honeycomb Ion Movement, First Proof, First Photograph'''—Muhammad Shaheer Niazi (2000—Present<ref name="Umer Nangiana (9th October 2017)."/><ref group="n.">In an article published by the BBC on October 9th, 2017, they mention the following which the year of his birth was determined: 
:::'''Quote:''' ''"It took him another year of work to come up with "novel ideas" before his paper was finally accepted for publication. He received the letter of acceptance just days ahead of his 17th birthday last month."''.
#Umer Nangiana (9th October 2017). ''[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-41548203 Electric honeycomb: Pakistani teen in scientific first]''. BBC News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191011012852/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-41548203 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 11th, 2019.</ref>) was the first to prove and photograph the movement of ions in oil through an electric phenomenon known as ''"rose window instability"'' (also known as the ''"electric honeycomb"'') which ''"revealed fundamental principles about how electricity moves through fluids"''.<ref name="Umer Nangiana (9th October 2017).">Umer Nangiana (9th October 2017). ''[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-41548203 Electric honeycomb: Pakistani teen in scientific first]''. BBC News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191011012852/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-41548203 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 11th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Staff Writer (5th October 2017).">Staff Writer (5th October 2017). ''[http://english.alarabiya.net/en/perspective/features/2017/10/05/A-17-year-old-Pakistani-s-tryst-with-electric-honeycomb.html A 17-year-old Pakistani scientist’s tryst with electric honeycomb]''. Al Arabiya English. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191011023209/http://english.alarabiya.net/en/perspective/features/2017/10/05/A-17-year-old-Pakistani-s-tryst-with-electric-honeycomb.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 11th, 2019.</ref> He achieved this feat in 2016 using the shadowgraphy technique (published in 2017<ref name="Niazi2017">Niazi, Muhammad Shaheer (2017). ''"[https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsos.170503 The Electric Honeycomb; an investigation of the Rose window instability]"''. Royal Society Open Science. 4 (10): 170503. doi:10.1098/rsos.170503. ISSN 2054-5703.</ref>). 
**He was also the '''first to discover that heat was generated''' at the needle tip caused by friction generated between the ions and oil, something which was not observed before.<ref name="Michelle Starr (10th October 2017).">Michelle Starr (10th October 2017). ''[https://www.sciencealert.com/a-teenager-from-pakistan-has-achieved-a-scientific-first-with-the-electric-honeycomb A 17-Year-Old Teen Just Achieved a Scientific First With This Weird Electric Phenomenon]''. Science Alert. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191011012636/https://www.sciencealert.com/a-teenager-from-pakistan-has-achieved-a-scientific-first-with-the-electric-honeycomb WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 11th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Joanna Klein (October 4th, 2017).">Joanna Klein (October 4th, 2017). ''[https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/04/science/electric-honeycomb.html Electric Honeycombs Form When Nature Gets Out of Balance]''. New York Times. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191011022648/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/04/science/electric-honeycomb.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 11th, 2019.</ref> His research was so profound that when he was contacted by ''The New York Times'', they mistakenly referred to him as ''"Dr. Niazi"'', despite the fact that he was not legally even an adult.<ref name="drniazi">''[https://www.dawn.com/news/1362314 Shaheer Niazi, the 'electric honeycomb' researcher, aims to bring the Nobel home]''. October 7th, 2017. Dawn. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190310075311/https://www.dawn.com/news/1362314 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 11th, 2019.</ref>
**It should however be noted that scientists were aware of the honeycomb phenomenon for decades; Alberto T. Pérez Izquierdo (19??—Present), and others before him, wrote papers on it, but crucially all of them had failed to spot any of Niazi's discoveries.<ref name="Michelle Starr (10th October 2017)."/><ref name="Joanna Klein (October 4th, 2017)."/> The field is still very new; only a few papers have ever been published before Niazi's research.<ref name="drniazi"/>
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[[File:Chinese and mysore rocket.jpg|170px|thumb|right|<div style="text-left; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:90%;">Chinese vs. Muslim rockets. The Chinese didn't think of making their rockets with metal.</div>]]
[[File:Congreve rockets.jpg|170px|thumb|right|<div style="text-left; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:90%;">The ''"Congreve Rocket"'' are exact copies of the rockets developed by Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan.</div>]]
*'''[[Battle of Pollilur (1780)|Metal Rockets/Missiles]]'''—Rocket technology featured prominently in the design of Haider Ali (1720—1782<ref name="Mohammad2013">Afsar Mohammad (December 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WfMVDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA17&dq=Haider+Ali+(1720%E2%80%941782)&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiU1_i3u-vlAhWGSxUIHTikBSYQ6AEIOTAC#v=onepage&q=Haider%20Ali%20(1720%E2%80%941782)&f=false The Festival of Pirs: Popular Islam and Shared Devotion in South India]''. Oxford University Press. pp. 17. ISBN 978-0-19-999758-9.</ref>) and Tipu Sultan's (1750—1799<ref name="Mohammad2013"/>) weaponry. Although the Muslims had not invented rockets per se, they did invent metal rockets (known as ''"Bana"''<ref name="Porter2003">Roy Porter (17 March 2003). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KDSqLsOHc9UC&pg=PA685&dq=mysore+rockets&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiupJfCwY3ZAhVQr6QKHam2BkYQ6AEIWTAI#v=onepage&q=mysore%20rockets&f=false The Cambridge History of Science: Volume 4, Eighteenth-Century Science]''. Cambridge University Press. p. 685. ISBN 978-0-521-57243-9.</ref>).<ref group="n.">
*Quote: "According to Amithaba Ghosh, 'Tipu's rockets could be considered as the first missiles, because the rocket could only carry itself, the propellant, its casing and the stabilizing stick', while 'the missile is distinguished by its ability to carry something more - like the sword or the bomb'. Tipu also used sword fixed rockets."
#Kaveh Yazdani (10 January 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TdrzDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA253&dq=mysore+rockets+four&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjouMCr8bPUAhWGJMAKHfvqADQQ6AEIOjAE#v=onepage&q=mysore%20rockets%20four&f=false India, Modernity and the Great Divergence: Mysore and Gujarat (17th to 19th C.)]''. BRILL. p. 253. ISBN 978-90-04-33079-5.</ref> Previously the Chinese had described paper rockets in the ''"Wu Pei Chih"'' (c. 1620s), which stated that explosive warheads were launched from wooden boxes, divided into cells that held 100 projectiles.<ref name="Riper20072">A. Bowdoin Van Riper (29 October 2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8CxJeFzCdQC&pg=PA14&dq=mysore+rockets&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiupJfCwY3ZAhVQr6QKHam2BkYQ6AEIMTAB#v=onepage&q=mysore%20rockets&f=false Rockets and Missiles: The Life Story of a Technology]''. JHU Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-8018-8792-5.</ref> However the Muslims were the first to make them out of metal, which made them far superior and far more powerful.
**Mysore in effect had invented a new set of rockets (indeed they ''"were the first ironcased rockets successfully deployed for military use"''<ref name="Wenger2017">Estefania Wenger (1 March 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rQQ1DgAAQBAJ&pg=PT13&dq=mysore+rockets&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiupJfCwY3ZAhVQr6QKHam2BkYQ6AEIPTAD#v=onepage&q=mysore%20rockets&f=false Tipu Sultan: A Biography]''. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. p. 13. ISBN 978-93-86367-44-0.</ref>) when they decided to manufacture them with metal instead of bamboo and pasteboard. The value of these rockets was so immense that Mysore attached a company of rocketeers to each of their army brigades, and were capable of raising well over 5,000—6,000 rocket carrying troops by the 1790s.<ref name="JaimJaim2014">Jaim, H. M. Iftekhar; Jaim, Jasmine (2014). ''[https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-94-007-3934-5_10216-1 "War Rockets in India"]'': 1–4. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-3934-5_10216-1.</ref><ref name="Yazdani2017">Kaveh Yazdani (10 January 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TdrzDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA252&dq=mysore+rockets+four&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjouMCr8bPUAhWGJMAKHfvqADQQ6AEIOjAE#v=onepage&q=mysore%20rockets%20four&f=false India, Modernity and the Great Divergence: Mysore and Gujarat (17th to 19th C.)]''. BRILL. p. 252. ISBN 978-90-04-33079-5.</ref> Adding iron to the devices boosted their impact on field, allowing weapon smiths to make them increasingly more powerful, destructive and loud without worrying about the fear of exploding the container from the expansion of the exhaust gases when firing them.<ref name="Riper20072"/> 
***The extra thrust that this provided more than compensated for their overall weight.<ref name="Riper20072"/> When Sultan was killed by the British, a smorgasbord of artillery was found in the ammunition stores of the Mysore military (or the ''"Rocket Court"'').<ref name="Haroon2013"/> There were 600 launchers, 700 serviceable rockets and over 9,000 empty rockets.<ref name="Haroon2013">Anwar Haroon (June 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7y-KAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA298&dq=mysore+rockets&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiupJfCwY3ZAhVQr6QKHam2BkYQ6AEIQjAE#v=onepage&q=mysore%20rockets&f=false Kingdom of Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan]''. Xlibris Corporation. p. 298. ISBN 978-1-4836-1534-9.</ref> Between 5—10 rockets were fired from a single wheeled rocket ramp, with the target coordinates customised by adjusting the angle of projection (made possible from ''"calculat[ing]...the diameter of the cylinder and the distance of the target"''.<ref name="JaimJaim2013"/> These rockets were capable of bombing targets more than 1.5 miles away<ref name="Miller20072">Ron Miller (1 September 2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Fiwju4vTbcwC&pg=PA18&lpg=PA18&dq=mysaore+rockets+1.5+miles&source=bl&ots=-SzB0J7RCF&sig=Y4XXzwTo7DjnZ0Yc4EDeuBkNVLI&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiqwon0uIzZAhUKjSwKHfrtAHUQ6AEIMjAC#v=onepage&q=mysaore%20rockets%201.5%20miles&f=false Satellites]''. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-8225-7154-4.</ref><ref name="Miller2007"/><ref name="SpangenburgMoser2009">Ray Spangenburg; Diane Kit Moser (2009). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x1KAmzvm874C&pg=PT32&lpg=PT32&dq=mysaore+rockets+1.5+miles&source=bl&ots=AA_B8gAwAo&sig=HYXMyw4TZRLlLejbSmJOCJPwdwA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiqwon0uIzZAhUKjSwKHfrtAHUQ6AEIKzAA#v=onepage&q=mysaore%20rockets%201.5%20miles&f=false Wernher Von Braun, Revised Edition]''. Infobase Publishing. p. 32. ISBN 978-1-4381-0413-3.</ref> (7,920 feet; more than the distance of certain modern sniper rifles).
**Mysore rockets were constructed using four crucial moieties; which were iron, steel, gunpowder and a specialised mechanical design.<ref name="JaimJaim2013">Jaim, H M Iftekhar; Jaim, Jasmine (2013). ''[http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1179/174962611X13097916223244?journalCode=yaaa20 "The Decisive Nature of the Indian War Rocket in the Anglo-Mysore Wars of the Eighteenth Century"]''. Arms & Armour. 8 (2): 131–138. ISSN 1741-6124. doi:10.1179/174962611X13097916223244.</ref> At least two surviving specimens exist; remaining preserved at the Royal Artillery Museum (under the ''"Woolwich Arsenal"'' collection).<ref name="JaimJaim2013"/> One of these specimens is a 2.3 inch outer diameter casing, by 10 inches in length, tied with strips of leather forming a hide to an adjacent 3 foot, 4 inch long sword blade (1.02 m in length).<ref name="JaimJaim2013"/> The second is a 1.5 inch by 7.8 inch casing with hide, but tied to a bamboo pole of 6 foot and 3 inches length (1.90m).<ref name="JaimJaim2013"/> 
***The casings are made of steel (whereas the cylinders themselves were made up of soft iron), which were coupled with mutli-nozzle holes, along with a sword blade acting as the directional warhead. The propellant consisted of a specially designed gunpowder (which had been modified to produce striking aggressive bursts of energy, spreading a rapid unpleasant strong odour as well as producing smoke, along with creating a sudden and deafening sound; also unusual for it's time, the gunpowder was highly resistant to moisture ingress; making the rockets extremely durable, during even the most intense of monsoons). Altogether the rockets weighed approximately 2kg—5.4kg each,<ref name="Miller2007">Ron Miller (1 August 2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9TxQhSdx7oMC&pg=PA16&lpg=PA16&dq=mysaore+rockets+1.5+miles&source=bl&ots=b1PgLNwbl1&sig=kU8XRvvqjZhCT_wFLNQMiAuPTjE&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiqwon0uIzZAhUKjSwKHfrtAHUQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=mysaore%20rockets%201.5%20miles&f=false Rockets]''. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-58013-688-4.</ref> with the propellant making up at least half of the rockets weight. They were capable of being fired simultaneously, making their use devastatingly efficient.<ref name="JaimJaim2013"/>
**Rocket technology never ceased to be researched after 1799; the year where Mysore collapsed under the British Empire. T.L. Varghese, V.N. Krishnamurthy, writing in ''"The Chemistry and Technology of Solid Rocket Propellants"'' (2017), show in great detail the vast and eclectic consequences the spread of this Muslim technology had been, and how it spurred European scientists to further innovate (including Alfred Nobel (1833—1896) who developed a blasting gel by using ''nitroglycerine'' and ''nitrocellulose'') to vastly improve rocket chemistry over the coming century.<ref name="VargheseKrishnamurthy2017">T.L. Varghese; V.N. Krishnamurthy (3 January 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_fmGDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1&dq=mysore+rockets&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiupJfCwY3ZAhVQr6QKHam2BkYQ6AEIXjAJ#v=onepage&q=mysore%20rockets&f=false The Chemistry and Technology of Solid Rocket Propellants (A Treatise on Solid Propellants)]''. Allied Publishers. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-93-85926-33-4.</ref> 
***The British eventually copied the designs and transported them to Europe where they were used during the Napoleonic Wars (having also unjustly claimed credit for their invention).<ref name="A. Bowdoin Van Riper (29 October 2007).">A. Bowdoin Van Riper (29 October 2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8CxJeFzCdQC&pg=PA14&dq=Battle+of+Pollilur+(1780)&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjMpcfdzIrNAhVFGsAKHVvkC7YQ6AEIJTAB#v=onepage&q=Battle%20of%20Pollilur%20(1780)&f=false Rockets and Missiles: The Life Story of a Technology]''. JHU Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-8018-8792-5.</ref> The Napoleonic Wars (1801—1815) were a series of intracontinental conflicts in Europe caused by the French that lead to the deaths of 5,925,048 people.<ref name="Clodfelter2017">Micheal Clodfelter (24 April 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kNzCDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA170&dq=Napoleonic+Wars+total+death+toll&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjmodGZuOvlAhUvVRUIHe57Af0Q6AEIUTAF#v=onepage&q=Napoleonic%20Wars%20total%20death%20toll&f=false Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492-2015, 4th ed]''. McFarland. p. 170. ISBN 978-1-4766-2585-0.</ref>
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'''[[#Astronomy & Universe (4)|Astronomy]]''' •
'''[[#Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)|Agriculture, Food & Beverage]]''' •
'''[[#Biology (2)|Biology]]''' (''[[#Paleontology (10)|Paleontology]]'') •
'''[[#Chemistry (5)|Chemistry]]''' •
'''[[#Computing (4)|Computing]]''' (''[[#Video-gaming (1)|Video-gaming]] • [[#Board Games (1)|Board-games]]'') •
'''[[#Mathematics (3)|Mathematics]]''' •
'''[[#Medicines (1)|Medicine]]''' (''[[#Disease Eradication (1)|Disease Eradication]]'' • ''[[#Genetics & Disease (5)|Genetics & Disease]]'' • ''[[#Medical Instruments (6)|Instruments]]'') •
'''[[#Physics (5)|Physics]]''' •
'''Engineering''' (''[[#Naval Engineering (1)|Naval]]'' • ''[[#Mechanical Engineering (7)|Mechanical]]'' • ''[[#Handtool Engineering (3)|Handtool]]'' • ''[[#Textile Engineering (3)|Textile]]'' (''[[#Clothing (2)|Clothing]]'') • ''[[#Architectural Engineering (4)|Architectural]]'') •
'''[[#Sport & Recreation (2)|Sport & Recreation]]''' •
'''[[#Disputed (2)|Disputed]]''' •
[[#Further Reading|Further Reading]] •
[[#Sources|Sources]] •
(''[[#Footnotes|Footnotes]]'' • ''[[#References|References]]'' • ''[[#Acknowledgements|Acknowledgements]]'') •
[[#External Links|External Links]] •
'''''Total Inventions & Discoveries Listed: 77'''''
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[Project-706/726 Pakistani Nuclear Weapons Project]]'''''
[[File:Comparison.jpg|center|1000px|]]
*'''Heavy Water Probe (SBM)'''—In the 1970's, Pakistani scientist Sultan B. Mahmood (c. 19??<ref name="unbirth">''[https://www.un.org/press/en/2001/afg176.doc.htm SECURITY COUNCIL COMMITTEE CONCERNING AFGHANISTAN ISSUES FIRST ADDENDUM TO ITS NEW CONSOLIDATED LIST]''. United Nations (UN). 26 December 2001. ''[http://archive.is/W9Hsv Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved July 18th, 2019.</ref>—Present) invented the SBM Probe.<ref name="bfas">''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iuPaAAAAMAAJ&q=SBM+probe+heavy+water&dq=SBM+probe+heavy+water&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjglcuphr_jAhVzQkEAHTe3BMkQ6AEIMDAB Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]''. Atomic Scientists of Chicago. Volume 59. 2003. p. 50.</ref> This device was capable of detecting heavy water leaks through steam pipes.<ref name="bfas"/> Mahmood patented the device in the West (in Canada).<ref name="bfas"/> The device's invention can be traced to the fact that during the development of Pakistan's nuclear programme, heavy water was being bought from Canada, which was expensive.<ref name="Khan2012sbmprobe">Feroz Khan (7 November 2012). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yGgrNAsKZjEC&pg=PA109&dq=SBM+probe+heavy+water&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiO78ahhr_jAhXJMMAKHXkyDnMQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=SBM%20probe%20heavy%20water&f=false Eating Grass: The Making of the Pakistani Bomb]''. Stanford University Press. pp. 108–109. ISBN 978-0-8047-8480-1.</ref> Pakistan could not afford to waste such a resource to leaks.<ref name="Khan2012sbmprobe"/> Since foreign assistance at preventing these leaks was non-existent, Pakistan was forced to innovate.<ref name="Khan2012sbmprobe"/>
**Heavy water—not be confused with hard water or tritiated water—is a type of liquid that contains deuterium ions in the form of deuterium oxide or deuterium protium oxide.<ref name="Hubbell2011">M. W. Hubbell (28 July 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nOw4raXFeS8C&pg=PA266&dq=%22what+is+heavy+water%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiQsLuojb_jAhXtQkEAHceBBi8Q6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=%22what%20is%20heavy%20water%22&f=false The Fundamentals of Nuclear Power Generation: Questions & Answers]''. Author House. p. 266. ISBN 978-1-4634-2658-3.</ref> In other words it is highly enriched water and can contain up to 100% deuterium oxide.<ref name="Hubbell2011"/> This type of water has a different bond energy and thus its physical, chemical and biological properties are also different to conventional water.<ref name="Hubbell2011"/> Pakistan was using this water as a modulator and coolant.<ref name="Khan2012sbmprobe"/>
**Despite his genius, Mahmood holds several strange beliefs that have lead to be ridiculed or have lead him to trouble with state authorities.<ref name="Dennis Overbye, James Glanz (November 2nd, 2001).">Dennis Overbye, James Glanz (November 2nd, 2001). ''[https://www.nytimes.com/2001/11/02/world/nation-challenged-nuclear-fears-pakistani-atomic-expert-arrested-last-week-had.html]''. The New York Times. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190718181958/https://www.nytimes.com/2001/11/02/world/nation-challenged-nuclear-fears-pakistani-atomic-expert-arrested-last-week-had.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved July 18th, 2019.</ref> One of these is in his belief that djinns—unseen beings made of fire according to Islam—can be used to harvest energy, and another being that the Taliban—an Afghan based fundamentalist Muslim group who fought and won against the Soviets in the 1980's—are the way forward for Pakistan.<ref name="Dennis Overbye, James Glanz (November 2nd, 2001)."/>

[[File:98239027 47061423-4245-4172-a23d-4260d2419d3f.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Honeycomb structure; electricity in oil.</div>]]
[[File:Ionicwind.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Photograph of the ions. Note the ionic wind pattern.</div>]]
*'''Electric Honeycomb Ion Movement, First Proof, First Photograph'''—Muhammad Shaheer Niazi (2000—Present<ref name="Umer Nangiana (9th October 2017)."/><ref group="n.">In an article published by the BBC on October 9th, 2017, they mention the following which the year of his birth was determined: 
:::'''Quote:''' ''"It took him another year of work to come up with "novel ideas" before his paper was finally accepted for publication. He received the letter of acceptance just days ahead of his 17th birthday last month."''.
#Umer Nangiana (9th October 2017). ''[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-41548203 Electric honeycomb: Pakistani teen in scientific first]''. BBC News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191011012852/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-41548203 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 11th, 2019.</ref>) was the first to prove and photograph the movement of ions in oil through an electric phenomenon known as ''"rose window instability"'' (also known as the ''"electric honeycomb"'') which ''"revealed fundamental principles about how electricity moves through fluids"''.<ref name="Umer Nangiana (9th October 2017).">Umer Nangiana (9th October 2017). ''[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-41548203 Electric honeycomb: Pakistani teen in scientific first]''. BBC News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191011012852/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-41548203 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 11th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Staff Writer (5th October 2017).">Staff Writer (5th October 2017). ''[http://english.alarabiya.net/en/perspective/features/2017/10/05/A-17-year-old-Pakistani-s-tryst-with-electric-honeycomb.html A 17-year-old Pakistani scientist’s tryst with electric honeycomb]''. Al Arabiya English. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191011023209/http://english.alarabiya.net/en/perspective/features/2017/10/05/A-17-year-old-Pakistani-s-tryst-with-electric-honeycomb.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 11th, 2019.</ref> He achieved this feat in 2016 using the shadowgraphy technique (published in 2017<ref name="Niazi2017">Niazi, Muhammad Shaheer (2017). ''"[https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsos.170503 The Electric Honeycomb; an investigation of the Rose window instability]"''. Royal Society Open Science. 4 (10): 170503. doi:10.1098/rsos.170503. ISSN 2054-5703.</ref>). 
**He was also the '''first to discover that heat was generated''' at the needle tip caused by friction generated between the ions and oil, something which was not observed before.<ref name="Michelle Starr (10th October 2017).">Michelle Starr (10th October 2017). ''[https://www.sciencealert.com/a-teenager-from-pakistan-has-achieved-a-scientific-first-with-the-electric-honeycomb A 17-Year-Old Teen Just Achieved a Scientific First With This Weird Electric Phenomenon]''. Science Alert. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191011012636/https://www.sciencealert.com/a-teenager-from-pakistan-has-achieved-a-scientific-first-with-the-electric-honeycomb WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 11th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Joanna Klein (October 4th, 2017).">Joanna Klein (October 4th, 2017). ''[https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/04/science/electric-honeycomb.html Electric Honeycombs Form When Nature Gets Out of Balance]''. New York Times. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191011022648/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/04/science/electric-honeycomb.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 11th, 2019.</ref> His research was so profound that when he was contacted by ''The New York Times'', they mistakenly referred to him as ''"Dr. Niazi"'', despite the fact that he was not legally even an adult.<ref name="drniazi">''[https://www.dawn.com/news/1362314 Shaheer Niazi, the 'electric honeycomb' researcher, aims to bring the Nobel home]''. October 7th, 2017. Dawn. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190310075311/https://www.dawn.com/news/1362314 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 11th, 2019.</ref>
**It should however be noted that scientists were aware of the honeycomb phenomenon for decades; Alberto T. Pérez Izquierdo (19??—Present), and others before him, wrote papers on it, but crucially all of them had failed to spot any of Niazi's discoveries.<ref name="Michelle Starr (10th October 2017)."/><ref name="Joanna Klein (October 4th, 2017)."/> The field is still very new; only a few papers have ever been published before Niazi's research.<ref name="drniazi"/>

[[File:Chinese and mysore rocket.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-left; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:90%;">Chinese vs. Muslim rockets. The Chinese didn't think of making their rockets with metal.</div>]]
[[File:Congreve rockets.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-left; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:90%;">The ''"Congreve Rocket"'' are exact copies of the rockets developed by Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan.</div>]]
*'''[[Battle of Pollilur (1780)|Metal Rockets/Missiles]]'''—Rocket technology featured prominently in the design of Haider Ali (1720—1782<ref name="Mohammad2013">Afsar Mohammad (December 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WfMVDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA17&dq=Haider+Ali+(1720%E2%80%941782)&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiU1_i3u-vlAhWGSxUIHTikBSYQ6AEIOTAC#v=onepage&q=Haider%20Ali%20(1720%E2%80%941782)&f=false The Festival of Pirs: Popular Islam and Shared Devotion in South India]''. Oxford University Press. pp. 17. ISBN 978-0-19-999758-9.</ref>) and Tipu Sultan's (1750—1799<ref name="Mohammad2013"/>) weaponry. Although the Muslims had not invented rockets per se, they did invent metal rockets (known as ''"Bana"''<ref name="Porter2003">Roy Porter (17 March 2003). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KDSqLsOHc9UC&pg=PA685&dq=mysore+rockets&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiupJfCwY3ZAhVQr6QKHam2BkYQ6AEIWTAI#v=onepage&q=mysore%20rockets&f=false The Cambridge History of Science: Volume 4, Eighteenth-Century Science]''. Cambridge University Press. p. 685. ISBN 978-0-521-57243-9.</ref>).<ref group="n.">
*Quote: "According to Amithaba Ghosh, 'Tipu's rockets could be considered as the first missiles, because the rocket could only carry itself, the propellant, its casing and the stabilizing stick', while 'the missile is distinguished by its ability to carry something more - like the sword or the bomb'. Tipu also used sword fixed rockets."
#Kaveh Yazdani (10 January 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TdrzDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA253&dq=mysore+rockets+four&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjouMCr8bPUAhWGJMAKHfvqADQQ6AEIOjAE#v=onepage&q=mysore%20rockets%20four&f=false India, Modernity and the Great Divergence: Mysore and Gujarat (17th to 19th C.)]''. BRILL. p. 253. ISBN 978-90-04-33079-5.</ref> Previously the Chinese had described paper rockets in the ''"Wu Pei Chih"'' (c. 1620s), which stated that explosive warheads were launched from wooden boxes, divided into cells that held 100 projectiles.<ref name="Riper20072">A. Bowdoin Van Riper (29 October 2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8CxJeFzCdQC&pg=PA14&dq=mysore+rockets&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiupJfCwY3ZAhVQr6QKHam2BkYQ6AEIMTAB#v=onepage&q=mysore%20rockets&f=false Rockets and Missiles: The Life Story of a Technology]''. JHU Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-8018-8792-5.</ref> However the Muslims were the first to make them out of metal, which made them far superior and far more powerful.
**Mysore in effect had invented a new set of rockets (indeed they ''"were the first ironcased rockets successfully deployed for military use"''<ref name="Wenger2017">Estefania Wenger (1 March 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rQQ1DgAAQBAJ&pg=PT13&dq=mysore+rockets&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiupJfCwY3ZAhVQr6QKHam2BkYQ6AEIPTAD#v=onepage&q=mysore%20rockets&f=false Tipu Sultan: A Biography]''. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. p. 13. ISBN 978-93-86367-44-0.</ref>) when they decided to manufacture them with metal instead of bamboo and pasteboard. The value of these rockets was so immense that Mysore attached a company of rocketeers to each of their army brigades, and were capable of raising well over 5,000—6,000 rocket carrying troops by the 1790s.<ref name="JaimJaim2014">Jaim, H. M. Iftekhar; Jaim, Jasmine (2014). ''[https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-94-007-3934-5_10216-1 "War Rockets in India"]'': 1–4. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-3934-5_10216-1.</ref><ref name="Yazdani2017">Kaveh Yazdani (10 January 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TdrzDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA252&dq=mysore+rockets+four&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjouMCr8bPUAhWGJMAKHfvqADQQ6AEIOjAE#v=onepage&q=mysore%20rockets%20four&f=false India, Modernity and the Great Divergence: Mysore and Gujarat (17th to 19th C.)]''. BRILL. p. 252. ISBN 978-90-04-33079-5.</ref> Adding iron to the devices boosted their impact on field, allowing weapon smiths to make them increasingly more powerful, destructive and loud without worrying about the fear of exploding the container from the expansion of the exhaust gases when firing them.<ref name="Riper20072"/> 
***The extra thrust that this provided more than compensated for their overall weight.<ref name="Riper20072"/> When Sultan was killed by the British, a smorgasbord of artillery was found in the ammunition stores of the Mysore military (or the ''"Rocket Court"'').<ref name="Haroon2013"/> There were 600 launchers, 700 serviceable rockets and over 9,000 empty rockets.<ref name="Haroon2013">Anwar Haroon (June 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7y-KAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA298&dq=mysore+rockets&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiupJfCwY3ZAhVQr6QKHam2BkYQ6AEIQjAE#v=onepage&q=mysore%20rockets&f=false Kingdom of Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan]''. Xlibris Corporation. p. 298. ISBN 978-1-4836-1534-9.</ref> Between 5—10 rockets were fired from a single wheeled rocket ramp, with the target coordinates customised by adjusting the angle of projection (made possible from ''"calculat[ing]...the diameter of the cylinder and the distance of the target"''.<ref name="JaimJaim2013"/> These rockets were capable of bombing targets more than 1.5 miles away<ref name="Miller20072">Ron Miller (1 September 2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Fiwju4vTbcwC&pg=PA18&lpg=PA18&dq=mysaore+rockets+1.5+miles&source=bl&ots=-SzB0J7RCF&sig=Y4XXzwTo7DjnZ0Yc4EDeuBkNVLI&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiqwon0uIzZAhUKjSwKHfrtAHUQ6AEIMjAC#v=onepage&q=mysaore%20rockets%201.5%20miles&f=false Satellites]''. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-8225-7154-4.</ref><ref name="Miller2007"/><ref name="SpangenburgMoser2009">Ray Spangenburg; Diane Kit Moser (2009). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x1KAmzvm874C&pg=PT32&lpg=PT32&dq=mysaore+rockets+1.5+miles&source=bl&ots=AA_B8gAwAo&sig=HYXMyw4TZRLlLejbSmJOCJPwdwA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiqwon0uIzZAhUKjSwKHfrtAHUQ6AEIKzAA#v=onepage&q=mysaore%20rockets%201.5%20miles&f=false Wernher Von Braun, Revised Edition]''. Infobase Publishing. p. 32. ISBN 978-1-4381-0413-3.</ref> (7,920 feet; more than the distance of certain modern sniper rifles).
**Mysore rockets were constructed using four crucial moieties; which were iron, steel, gunpowder and a specialised mechanical design.<ref name="JaimJaim2013">Jaim, H M Iftekhar; Jaim, Jasmine (2013). ''[http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1179/174962611X13097916223244?journalCode=yaaa20 "The Decisive Nature of the Indian War Rocket in the Anglo-Mysore Wars of the Eighteenth Century"]''. Arms & Armour. 8 (2): 131–138. ISSN 1741-6124. doi:10.1179/174962611X13097916223244.</ref> At least two surviving specimens exist; remaining preserved at the Royal Artillery Museum (under the ''"Woolwich Arsenal"'' collection).<ref name="JaimJaim2013"/> One of these specimens is a 2.3 inch outer diameter casing, by 10 inches in length, tied with strips of leather forming a hide to an adjacent 3 foot, 4 inch long sword blade (1.02 m in length).<ref name="JaimJaim2013"/> The second is a 1.5 inch by 7.8 inch casing with hide, but tied to a bamboo pole of 6 foot and 3 inches length (1.90m).<ref name="JaimJaim2013"/> 
***The casings are made of steel (whereas the cylinders themselves were made up of soft iron), which were coupled with mutli-nozzle holes, along with a sword blade acting as the directional warhead. The propellant consisted of a specially designed gunpowder (which had been modified to produce striking aggressive bursts of energy, spreading a rapid unpleasant strong odour as well as producing smoke, along with creating a sudden and deafening sound; also unusual for it's time, the gunpowder was highly resistant to moisture ingress; making the rockets extremely durable, during even the most intense of monsoons). Altogether the rockets weighed approximately 2kg—5.4kg each,<ref name="Miller2007">Ron Miller (1 August 2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9TxQhSdx7oMC&pg=PA16&lpg=PA16&dq=mysaore+rockets+1.5+miles&source=bl&ots=b1PgLNwbl1&sig=kU8XRvvqjZhCT_wFLNQMiAuPTjE&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiqwon0uIzZAhUKjSwKHfrtAHUQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=mysaore%20rockets%201.5%20miles&f=false Rockets]''. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-58013-688-4.</ref> with the propellant making up at least half of the rockets weight. They were capable of being fired simultaneously, making their use devastatingly efficient.<ref name="JaimJaim2013"/>
**Rocket technology never ceased to be researched after 1799; the year where Mysore collapsed under the British Empire. T.L. Varghese, V.N. Krishnamurthy, writing in ''"The Chemistry and Technology of Solid Rocket Propellants"'' (2017), show in great detail the vast and eclectic consequences the spread of this Muslim technology had been, and how it spurred European scientists to further innovate (including Alfred Nobel (1833—1896) who developed a blasting gel by using ''nitroglycerine'' and ''nitrocellulose'') to vastly improve rocket chemistry over the coming century.<ref name="VargheseKrishnamurthy2017">T.L. Varghese; V.N. Krishnamurthy (3 January 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_fmGDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1&dq=mysore+rockets&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiupJfCwY3ZAhVQr6QKHam2BkYQ6AEIXjAJ#v=onepage&q=mysore%20rockets&f=false The Chemistry and Technology of Solid Rocket Propellants (A Treatise on Solid Propellants)]''. Allied Publishers. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-93-85926-33-4.</ref> 
***The British eventually copied the designs and transported them to Europe where they were used during the Napoleonic Wars (having also unjustly claimed credit for their invention).<ref name="A. Bowdoin Van Riper (29 October 2007).">A. Bowdoin Van Riper (29 October 2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k8CxJeFzCdQC&pg=PA14&dq=Battle+of+Pollilur+(1780)&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjMpcfdzIrNAhVFGsAKHVvkC7YQ6AEIJTAB#v=onepage&q=Battle%20of%20Pollilur%20(1780)&f=false Rockets and Missiles: The Life Story of a Technology]''. JHU Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-8018-8792-5.</ref> The Napoleonic Wars (1801—1815) were a series of intracontinental conflicts in Europe caused by the French that lead to the deaths of 5,925,048 people.<ref name="Clodfelter2017">Micheal Clodfelter (24 April 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kNzCDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA170&dq=Napoleonic+Wars+total+death+toll&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjmodGZuOvlAhUvVRUIHe57Af0Q6AEIUTAF#v=onepage&q=Napoleonic%20Wars%20total%20death%20toll&f=false Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492-2015, 4th ed]''. McFarland. p. 170. ISBN 978-1-4766-2585-0.</ref>
</div>
</div>

===Naval Engineering (1)===
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[List of Inventions and Discoveries in Mechanics During the Islamic Golden Age]]'''''
[[File:Bengal Rice-Ship Diana.jpg|thumb|left|250px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">A Bengal Rice Ship (1823—1836; foreground) built in Bengal,<ref group="n.">
According to descriptions as relayed by David Lyon and Rif Winfield in ''"The Sail & Steam Navy List: All the Ships of the Royal Navy"'' (2004); the following description is given on the Bengal Rice Ship: '''''Quote'''''

:::''"Paddle Vessels On Indian Service''
:::''"DIANA - ex-mercantile purchased vessel, 1824.''
:::''Dimensions & tons: 100ft 0in, 90ft 0in x 16ft 8in x... . 133 bm.''
:::''Machinery: 64 nhp''
:::''L:12.7.1823 by Kyds, Kidderpore (Calcutta). Purchased 1824 at the suggestion of Commander Frederick Marryat (the subsequent author) and used for riverine service in the First Anglo-Burmese War - the RN's first use of steam power in combat. Transferred to Burmese Government 1826 (following the end of that war). BU 1836."'''''†'''

Paraphrasing, and adding some supplementary notes, what this states is that the ship was built in the dockyard ''Messrs'''↑''' Kyds & Co Dockyard'' which was to be found in Calcutta (West Bengal'''‡'''). It was built on the 12th of July, 1823, and built as a merchant ship. It was then bought by the British Royal Navy in 1824 on the advice of commander Frederick Marryat (1792—1848'''↓'''). It was then put to use during the First Anglo—Burmese War. In 1836 it was subsequently destroyed.

::(a). '''†''' David Lyon; Rif Winfield (2004). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pldYJvp3kcwC&dq=The+Sail+and+Steam+Navy+List:+All+the+Ships+of+the+Royal+Navy+1815%E2%80%931889.&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwib4Z7NmKXlAhXRY1AKHRaZDL8Q6AEIKTAA The Sail & Steam Navy List: All the Ships of the Royal Navy, 1815-1889]''. Chatham. p. 172. ISBN 978-1-86176-032-6.
:::(i). See also: Rif Winfield (30 April 2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G2FEBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT1202&lpg=PT1202&dq=Kyds+of+Kidderpore&source=bl&ots=j8snaTCLNy&sig=ACfU3U2tCHiiaLxAvc5Ew1Dm8YFUsTcdVw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjugsSTl6XlAhVLJFAKHSnUA80Q6AEwEnoECAgQAQ#v=onepage&q=Kyds%20of%20Kidderpore&f=false British Warships in the Age of Sail 1817-1863: Design, Construction, Careers and Fates]''. Seaforth Publishing. p. 1202. ISBN 978-1-4738-3743-0.
::(b). '''‡''' Pradyumna P. Karan (30 December 2004). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V16TAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT336&dq=Calcutta+is+in+West+Bengal&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjWgaWBnqXlAhUJLFAKHUhgC9Y4ChDoAQhkMAk#v=onepage&q=Calcutta%20is%20in%20West%20Bengal&f=false The Non-Western World: Environment, Development and Human Rights]''. Routledge. p. 336. ISBN 1-135-93836-9. 
::(c). '''↑''' ''[https://collections.rmg.co.uk/collections/objects/110808.html The Honble Companys Steamer Diana, built at Messrs Kyds & Co Dockyard (Kidderpore near Calcutta) PAD6657]''. Royal Museums Greenwich (National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London). ''[http://archive.is/HmTko Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved October 18th, 2019.
::(d). '''↓''' Sally Mitchell (2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yCNdsz5IlJwC&pg=PA480&dq=Frederick+Marryat+1792-1848&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiQiufCnaXlAhUIKlAKHap2BNsQ6AEIOjAD#v=onepage&q=Frederick%20Marryat%201792-1848&f=false Victorian Britain: An Encyclopedia]''. Routledge. pp. 480. ISBN 978-0-415-66851-4.</ref> named ''"Diana"''.<ref name="Ian Nicholson (1993)."/><ref name="Ian Nicholson (June 3rd, 2013)."/> Depicted in a painting during the First Burma War (1824—1826).<ref name="Ian Nicholson (1993)."/><ref name="Ian Nicholson (June 3rd, 2013)."/> This had added steam-driven capability.<ref name="Ian Nicholson (1993)."/><ref name="Ian Nicholson (June 3rd, 2013)."/> It was the first steam vessel ever used in war.<ref name="Ian Nicholson (1993).">Ian Nicholson (1993). ''[https://zenodo.org/record/6901/files/Log_of_Logs_vol2.pdf?download=1 Log of Logs]''. A Catalogue Of Logs, Journals, Sidpboard Diaries, Letters, And All Forms Of Voyage Narratives, 1788 To 1993, For Australian And New Zealand, And Surrounding Oceans. Volume 2.  p. 130-131. Roebuck Society Publication No. 47. Sunstrip Printers. ISBN 0-646-09182-4 (National Library of Australia Card Number And ISBN). Retrieved October 18th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Ian Nicholson (June 3rd, 2013).">Ian Nicholson (June 3rd, 2013). ''[https://zenodo.org/record/6901 The Log of Logs Volumes 1, 2 & 3]''. Volume 2. p. 130-131. Zenodo. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6901. ''[http://archive.is/8puiQ Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved October 18th, 2019.</ref></div>]]
[[File:Lpgflusheddeckdesign.jpg|thumb|left|250px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Liquified petroleum carrier's for example (also known as LPG's) still use a flushed deck design.<ref name="maritimebook"/></div>]]
[[File:Carriertled-1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Aircraft carriers use a flushed deck design, inspired from the Bengal Rice Ship.</div>]]
::::::::::::*'''Flush Deck'''—A maritime innovation known as the ''"flush deck"'' can directly be traced back to rule of the ''Mughal Sultanate'' (or ''Mughal Empire'') in the Bengal's Mughal period from where it originated.<ref name="Morgan Kelly; Cormac Ó Gráda (June 2017)."/><ref name="Parkinson2013134-135"/><ref name="Parkinson2013349"/> In the 1700s, Mughal Bengal was worth in excess of $1 trillion USD dollars (and made up 12% of the world's entire GDP alone<ref group="n.">It was the wealthiest province in the Mughal Empires.
#M. Alam (5 February 2016). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=suKKCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false Poverty From The Wealth of Nations: Integration and Polarization in the Global Economy since 1760]''. Springer. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-333-98564-9.</ref>).<ref name="Hissam Khandker (July 31st, 2015).">Hissam Khandker (July 31st, 2015). ''[https://www.thedailystar.net/op-ed/politics/which-india-claiming-have-been-colonised-119284 Which India is claiming to have been colonised?]''. The Daily Star. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191030190232/https://www.thedailystar.net/op-ed/politics/which-india-claiming-have-been-colonised-119284 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 30th, 2019.</ref> In the 1760s, after the annexation of the ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal_Subah Subah Bangalah]'' (or ''Bengal Subah''; 1576—1757<ref name="Uddin2006">Sufia M. Uddin (15 December 2006). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wpS0vjc8atIC&pg=PA31&dq=mughal+bengal+1576-1757&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjNoZno28TlAhU4SBUIHYF7BY8Q6AEIPjAD#v=onepage&q=mughal%20bengal%201576-1757&f=false Constructing Bangladesh: Religion, Ethnicity, and Language in an Islamic Nation]''. Univ of North Carolina Press. pp. 31–. ISBN 978-0-8078-7733-3.</ref>) by the British Empire (c. 1500s—1945<ref name="Rimanelli2009">Marco Rimanelli (14 September 2009). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TLaUACsJpYcC&pg=PA305&dq=British+Empire+(c.+1500s%E2%80%941947)&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi8uv7oprDZAhWEC-wKHRQNCb8Q6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=British%20Empire%20(c.%201500s%E2%80%941947)&f=false The A to Z of NATO and Other International Security Organizations]''. Scarecrow Press. p. 305. ISBN 978-0-8108-7062-8.</ref>), the British became aware of a technological innovation that had never been seen before.<ref name="Morgan Kelly; Cormac Ó Gráda (June 2017)."/> This was what they later named the ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flush_deck&oldid=921645860 flush deck]'' in English. This design was then spread throughout the rest of the world.<ref name="Morgan Kelly; Cormac Ó Gráda (June 2017).">Morgan Kelly; Cormac Ó Gráda (June 2017). ''[http://www.ucd.ie/t4cms/WP17_11.pdf Technological Dynamism in a Stagnant Sector: Safety at Sea during the Early Industrial Revolution]''. University College, Dublin. School of Economics. p. 1-45 (p. 5). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191017062439/http://www.ucd.ie/t4cms/WP17_11.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 17th, 2019.</ref>
::::::::::::**A flush deck can be visualised as a deck that runs from the beginning of a ship to the end of a ship, which is continuous and unbroken.<ref name="globalsecurity">''[https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ship/sail-decks.htm Sailing Ship Decks]''. Global Security. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191017071635/https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ship/sail-decks.htm WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 17th, 2019.</ref><ref name="FordHamilton2012">Ford, Ben; Hamilton, Donny L.; Catsambis, Alexis; Steffy, J. Richard (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Maritime Archaeology. ''[https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199336005.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199336005-e-48 Illustrated Glossary of Ship and Boat Terms]''. 1. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199336005.013.0048</ref><ref name="definitionmarineinsight">''[https://www.marineinsight.com/marine-navigation/10-types-of-decks-every-seafarer-should-know/ 10 Types of Decks Every Seafarer Should Know]''. Marine Insight. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20170804130213/https://www.marineinsight.com/marine-navigation/10-types-of-decks-every-seafarer-should-know/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 17th, 2019.</ref> In the 20th century this type of ship design was especially used for a new class of aircraft carriers operated by the USA (most notably, the USA's first aircraft carrier, the ''USS Langley'', first commissioned in 1922<ref>''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8sZGAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA11-PA5&dq=USS+Langley+flushdeck&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiNoqKUm6PlAhVJi1wKHeMeADcQ6AEIKzAA#v=onepage&q=USS%20Langley%20flushdeck&f=false Technical Data Digest]''. Air Documents Division, Intelligence T-2, Air Matériel Command. 1948. p. 11.</ref>) and several classes of American destroyers (most notably the ''Caldwell-classes'', ''Wickes-classes'' and ''Clemson-classes'' which were all fully flushed deck designs that were used in WWII<ref name="Lardas2018">Mark Lardas (28 August 2018). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WjNWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12&dq=Caldwell-class+flush+deck&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiXotPIm6PlAhVZilwKHVTnAx4Q6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q=Caldwell-class%20flush%20deck&f=false US Flush-Deck Destroyers 1916–45: Caldwell, Wickes, and Clemson classes]''. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4728-1998-7.</ref>). There are many classes of ship that still use the flush deck design, most notably LPG-carriers.<ref name="maritimebook">''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780750689878000020 The Maritime Engineering Reference Book (Marine Vehicle Types)]''. 2008. 43–74. doi:10.1016/b978-0-7506-8987-8.00002-0.</ref>
::::::::::::**According to Western historians, this Bengali invention was ''"duplicated"'' by the naval architect<ref name="David K. Brown (2014)">David K. Brown (2014). ''[https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-64867 Snodgrass, Gabriel]''. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191018025807/https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-64867 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 18th, 2019.</ref> Gabriel Snodgrass (1719—1799<ref name="Records1974">India Office Library and Records (1974). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=12Kn-SvPxmoC&q=Gabriel+Snodgrass+(1719%E2%80%941799)&dq=Gabriel+Snodgrass+(1719%E2%80%941799)&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjKwJzK6KTlAhVLJFAKHfkUAYkQ6AEILjAB Report for the Year Ended...]''. India Office Library & Records. p. 84.</ref>), who directly copied it from the ''"the hull pattern of a Bengal rice ship"'' in the 1760s,<ref name="Morgan Kelly; Cormac Ó Gráda (June 2017)."/> Snodgrass clearly saw the advantageous nature of the design; which consisted of a ''"single, strong, well-cambered flush deck with watertight hatches that could be battened down against heavy seas"''.<ref name="Morgan Kelly; Cormac Ó Gráda (June 2017)."/> They were adopted by the British because the flush decks made the hulls stiffer and ''"less prone to leak[ages]"'' and also meant that ships would not ''"occasionally disintegrate in heavy seas"''.<ref name="Morgan Kelly; Cormac Ó Gráda (June 2017)."/> This would go on to give the British significant advantages.
:::::::::::::::*Bengal rice ships were enormously profitable vessels, capable to generating vast amounts of trade because of their design.<ref name="Frey2014"/> For example, in 1800, according to British chroniclers,  a Bengal ''"rice ship making four runs annually across the Bay of Bengal could clear a profit of £9,500 after paying operating costs"''.<ref name="Frey2014">Frey, James W. (2014). ''[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-review-of-social-history/article/getting-away-with-murder-the-wrongful-deaths-of-lascars-aboard-the-union-in-1802/0DC53B10D12977C99C07AB647AE84B04 Getting Away with Murder: The Wrongful Deaths of Lascars Aboard the Union in 1802]''. International Review of Social History. 59 (S22): 45–68. doi:10.1017/S0020859014000327. ISSN 0020-8590.</ref> According to the Bank of England, in 2018, taking inflation into account, this would amount to a grand total of £781,674.07 pounds per ship.<ref name="bankofenglandinflation">''[https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/monetary-policy/inflation/inflation-calculator Input: £9,500 (c. 1800) to 2018 Great British Pound]''. Bank of England. Retrieved October 23rd, 2019.</ref> The Mughals were known to have built more than 3,000 of them. This trade made them so rich that the Subah Bangala accounted for over 50% of the Mughal Empire's gross domestic product (GDP). This industry was destroyed by the British who transferred all the money generated here to Britain, which fueled the Industrial Revolution.
::::::::::::::*The British East India Company had their own ships, which were separate from those of the British Royal Navy and which were called ''East Indiamen'' (the latter used their own vessels which were known as the ''King's Ships'').<ref name="Parkinson2013134-135">C. Northcote Parkinson (11 January 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8KosBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136&dq=Flush+deck+bengal&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjel4n4-bbkAhWkQUEAHbITDpEQ6AEIMTAB#v=snippet&q=bengal%20flush%20deck&f=false Trade in Eastern Seas 1793-1813]''. Routledge. pp. 134–139. ISBN 978-1-136-23557-3.</ref> These ships gradually ''"attained a degree of superiority"'' over time, mainly through the Company's contacts in the Bengal.<ref name="Parkinson2013134-135"/> Gabriel Snodgrass (1719—1799) was sent here to work as a shipwright at sometime in the the 18th century, only returning to the United Kingdom in 1757.<ref name="Parkinson2013134-135"/> He was the chief surveyor of Britain and worked right up to 1796.<ref name="Parkinson2013134-135"/> In 1771 and 1791, he presented all that he learned in the Bengal to the House of Commons, who began introducing reforms to the Navy which ended up having some ''"vitally important results"''.<ref name="Parkinson2013134-135"/>
::::::::::::::**One of these was the introduction of the ''"flush deck"'' (or ''"flush upper deck"'').<ref name="Parkinson2013134-135"/> Snodgrass directly copied the design from, and indeed ''"everything seems to point to the conclusion that it was"'', the Muslim Bengalis.<ref name="Parkinson2013349"/> This design was radical because it meant that ships that had previously had a deep waist took on water, which was very difficult to get rid of.<ref name="Parkinson2013134-135"/> It meant that water would accumulate and trap itself on the ship.<ref name="Parkinson2013134-135"/> This was particularly dangerous in storms or heavy seas, as there was a significant risk of the ship capsizing.<ref name="Parkinson2013134-135"/> With this new design, water escaped as quickly it came in.<ref name="Parkinson2013134-135"/> The justification for it's use became all the more important when significant numbers of deep-waisted ships kept sinking whereas the new ships wouldn't.<ref name="Parkinson2013134-135"/> 
::::::::::::::***Another particularly important advantage of having the flush deck was in combating piracy.<ref name="Parkinson2013349">C. Northcote Parkinson (11 January 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8KosBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA349&dq=Flush+deck+bengal&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjel4n4-bbkAhWkQUEAHbITDpEQ6AEIMTAB#v=snippet&q=bengal%20flush%20deck&f=false Trade in Eastern Seas 1793-1813]''. Routledge. p. 349. ISBN 978-1-136-23557-3.</ref> It was only on the flush deck designs that pirates were able to be ''"confined to the upper deck"'', making it substantially easier to defend against them.<ref name="Parkinson2013349"/>
::::::::::::::*Flush decks had never been seen before in Europe; ''"[s]ince medieval times, European ships had a stepped deck, raised at both ends and lower in the middle"''.<ref name="KellyÓ Gráda2018">Kelly, Morgan; Ó Gráda, Cormac (2018). ''"[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ehr.12696 Speed under sail during the early industrial revolution (c. 1750–1830)]"''. The Economic History Review. 72 (2): 459–480. doi:10.1111/ehr.12696. ISSN 0013-0117.</ref><ref name="O'GradaKelly2014">O'Grada, Cormac; Kelly, Morgan (2014). ''"[https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2412955 Speed Under Sail, 1750-1850]"''. SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2412955. ISSN 1556-5068.</ref><ref name="Morgan Kelly; Cormac Ó Gráda (2017)2">Morgan Kelly; Cormac Ó Gráda (2017). ''[https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/184811 Technological dynamism in a stagnant sector: Safety at sea during the early Industrial Revolution]''. University College, Dublin. School of Economics. p. 1-45. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191017062745/https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/184811 WayBackMachine Link]''. ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10419/184811 Alternative Link]''. Retrieved October 17th, 2019.</ref> These European ships ''"offered an effective fighting platform but at the cost of seaworthiness: the low waist deck caused the vessel to ship water each time it dipped in a heavy sea, flooding lower decks. As well as being prone to foundering, these ships were structurally weak"''.<ref name="KellyÓ Gráda2018"/> As a result, the Bengali design was adopted. It was later further developed in Europe, with ''"increas[ed] use of iron, first to attach decks securely to hulls, and then to brace ships more generally"''.<ref name="Morgan Kelly; Cormac Ó Gráda (June 2017)."/> 
::::::::::::::**Interestingly the British Royal Navy was resistant to the idea, and did not adopt this design until the 1830s, even though the British East India Company did well before them.<ref name="KellyÓ Gráda2018"/><ref name="O'GradaKelly2014"/><ref name="Morgan Kelly; Cormac Ó Gráda (2017)2"/> However, once adopted, it gave them a significant military edge.
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'''[[#Astronomy & Universe (4)|Astronomy]]''' •
'''[[#Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)|Agriculture, Food & Beverage]]''' •
'''[[#Biology (2)|Biology]]''' (''[[#Paleontology (10)|Paleontology]]'') •
'''[[#Chemistry (5)|Chemistry]]''' •
'''[[#Computing (4)|Computing]]''' (''[[#Video-gaming (1)|Video-gaming]] • [[#Board Games (1)|Board-games]]'') •
'''[[#Mathematics (3)|Mathematics]]''' •
'''[[#Medicines (1)|Medicine]]''' (''[[#Disease Eradication (1)|Disease Eradication]]'' • ''[[#Genetics & Disease (5)|Genetics & Disease]]'' • ''[[#Medical Instruments (6)|Instruments]]'') •
'''[[#Physics (5)|Physics]]''' •
'''Engineering''' (''[[#Naval Engineering (1)|Naval]]'' • ''[[#Mechanical Engineering (7)|Mechanical]]'' • ''[[#Handtool Engineering (3)|Handtool]]'' • ''[[#Textile Engineering (3)|Textile]]'' (''[[#Clothing (2)|Clothing]]'') • ''[[#Architectural Engineering (4)|Architectural]]'') •
'''[[#Sport & Recreation (2)|Sport & Recreation]]''' •
'''[[#Disputed (2)|Disputed]]''' •
[[#Further Reading|Further Reading]] •
[[#Sources|Sources]] •
(''[[#Footnotes|Footnotes]]'' • ''[[#References|References]]'' • ''[[#Acknowledgements|Acknowledgements]]'') •
[[#External Links|External Links]] •
'''''Total Inventions & Discoveries Listed: 77'''''
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[List of Inventions and Discoveries in Mechanics During the Islamic Golden Age]]'''''
[[File:Bengal Rice-Ship Diana.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">A Bengal Rice Ship (1823—1836; foreground) built in Bengal,<ref group="n.">
According to descriptions as relayed by David Lyon and Rif Winfield in ''"The Sail & Steam Navy List: All the Ships of the Royal Navy"'' (2004); the following description is given on the Bengal Rice Ship: '''''Quote'''''

:::''"Paddle Vessels On Indian Service''
:::''"DIANA - ex-mercantile purchased vessel, 1824.''
:::''Dimensions & tons: 100ft 0in, 90ft 0in x 16ft 8in x... . 133 bm.''
:::''Machinery: 64 nhp''
:::''L:12.7.1823 by Kyds, Kidderpore (Calcutta). Purchased 1824 at the suggestion of Commander Frederick Marryat (the subsequent author) and used for riverine service in the First Anglo-Burmese War - the RN's first use of steam power in combat. Transferred to Burmese Government 1826 (following the end of that war). BU 1836."'''''†'''

Paraphrasing, and adding some supplementary notes, what this states is that the ship was built in the dockyard ''Messrs'''↑''' Kyds & Co Dockyard'' which was to be found in Calcutta (West Bengal'''‡'''). It was built on the 12th of July, 1823, and built as a merchant ship. It was then bought by the British Royal Navy in 1824 on the advice of commander Frederick Marryat (1792—1848'''↓'''). It was then put to use during the First Anglo—Burmese War. In 1836 it was subsequently destroyed.

::(a). '''†''' David Lyon; Rif Winfield (2004). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pldYJvp3kcwC&dq=The+Sail+and+Steam+Navy+List:+All+the+Ships+of+the+Royal+Navy+1815%E2%80%931889.&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwib4Z7NmKXlAhXRY1AKHRaZDL8Q6AEIKTAA The Sail & Steam Navy List: All the Ships of the Royal Navy, 1815-1889]''. Chatham. p. 172. ISBN 978-1-86176-032-6.
:::(i). See also: Rif Winfield (30 April 2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G2FEBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT1202&lpg=PT1202&dq=Kyds+of+Kidderpore&source=bl&ots=j8snaTCLNy&sig=ACfU3U2tCHiiaLxAvc5Ew1Dm8YFUsTcdVw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjugsSTl6XlAhVLJFAKHSnUA80Q6AEwEnoECAgQAQ#v=onepage&q=Kyds%20of%20Kidderpore&f=false British Warships in the Age of Sail 1817-1863: Design, Construction, Careers and Fates]''. Seaforth Publishing. p. 1202. ISBN 978-1-4738-3743-0.
::(b). '''‡''' Pradyumna P. Karan (30 December 2004). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V16TAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT336&dq=Calcutta+is+in+West+Bengal&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjWgaWBnqXlAhUJLFAKHUhgC9Y4ChDoAQhkMAk#v=onepage&q=Calcutta%20is%20in%20West%20Bengal&f=false The Non-Western World: Environment, Development and Human Rights]''. Routledge. p. 336. ISBN 1-135-93836-9. 
::(c). '''↑''' ''[https://collections.rmg.co.uk/collections/objects/110808.html The Honble Companys Steamer Diana, built at Messrs Kyds & Co Dockyard (Kidderpore near Calcutta) PAD6657]''. Royal Museums Greenwich (National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London). ''[http://archive.is/HmTko Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved October 18th, 2019.
::(d). '''↓''' Sally Mitchell (2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yCNdsz5IlJwC&pg=PA480&dq=Frederick+Marryat+1792-1848&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiQiufCnaXlAhUIKlAKHap2BNsQ6AEIOjAD#v=onepage&q=Frederick%20Marryat%201792-1848&f=false Victorian Britain: An Encyclopedia]''. Routledge. pp. 480. ISBN 978-0-415-66851-4.</ref> named ''"Diana"''.<ref name="Ian Nicholson (1993)."/><ref name="Ian Nicholson (June 3rd, 2013)."/> Depicted in a painting during the First Burma War (1824—1826).<ref name="Ian Nicholson (1993)."/><ref name="Ian Nicholson (June 3rd, 2013)."/> This had added steam-driven capability.<ref name="Ian Nicholson (1993)."/><ref name="Ian Nicholson (June 3rd, 2013)."/> It was the first steam vessel ever used in war.<ref name="Ian Nicholson (1993).">Ian Nicholson (1993). ''[https://zenodo.org/record/6901/files/Log_of_Logs_vol2.pdf?download=1 Log of Logs]''. A Catalogue Of Logs, Journals, Sidpboard Diaries, Letters, And All Forms Of Voyage Narratives, 1788 To 1993, For Australian And New Zealand, And Surrounding Oceans. Volume 2.  p. 130-131. Roebuck Society Publication No. 47. Sunstrip Printers. ISBN 0-646-09182-4 (National Library of Australia Card Number And ISBN). Retrieved October 18th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Ian Nicholson (June 3rd, 2013).">Ian Nicholson (June 3rd, 2013). ''[https://zenodo.org/record/6901 The Log of Logs Volumes 1, 2 & 3]''. Volume 2. p. 130-131. Zenodo. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6901. ''[http://archive.is/8puiQ Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved October 18th, 2019.</ref></div>]]
[[File:Lpgflusheddeckdesign.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Liquified petroleum carrier's for example (also known as LPG's) still use a flushed deck design.<ref name="maritimebook"/></div>]]
[[File:Carriertled-1.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Aircraft carriers use a flushed deck design, inspired from the Bengal Rice Ship.</div>]]
*'''Flush Deck'''—A maritime innovation known as the ''"flush deck"'' can directly be traced back to rule of the ''Mughal Sultanate'' (or ''Mughal Empire'') in the Bengal's Mughal period from where it originated.<ref name="Morgan Kelly; Cormac Ó Gráda (June 2017)."/><ref name="Parkinson2013134-135"/><ref name="Parkinson2013349"/> In the 1700s, Mughal Bengal was worth in excess of $1 trillion USD dollars (and made up 12% of the world's entire GDP alone<ref group="n.">It was the wealthiest province in the Mughal Empires.
#M. Alam (5 February 2016). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=suKKCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false Poverty From The Wealth of Nations: Integration and Polarization in the Global Economy since 1760]''. Springer. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-333-98564-9.</ref>).<ref name="Hissam Khandker (July 31st, 2015).">Hissam Khandker (July 31st, 2015). ''[https://www.thedailystar.net/op-ed/politics/which-india-claiming-have-been-colonised-119284 Which India is claiming to have been colonised?]''. The Daily Star. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191030190232/https://www.thedailystar.net/op-ed/politics/which-india-claiming-have-been-colonised-119284 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 30th, 2019.</ref> In the 1760s, after the annexation of the ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal_Subah Subah Bangalah]'' (or ''Bengal Subah''; 1576—1757<ref name="Uddin2006">Sufia M. Uddin (15 December 2006). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wpS0vjc8atIC&pg=PA31&dq=mughal+bengal+1576-1757&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjNoZno28TlAhU4SBUIHYF7BY8Q6AEIPjAD#v=onepage&q=mughal%20bengal%201576-1757&f=false Constructing Bangladesh: Religion, Ethnicity, and Language in an Islamic Nation]''. Univ of North Carolina Press. pp. 31–. ISBN 978-0-8078-7733-3.</ref>) by the British Empire (c. 1500s—1945<ref name="Rimanelli2009">Marco Rimanelli (14 September 2009). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TLaUACsJpYcC&pg=PA305&dq=British+Empire+(c.+1500s%E2%80%941947)&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi8uv7oprDZAhWEC-wKHRQNCb8Q6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=British%20Empire%20(c.%201500s%E2%80%941947)&f=false The A to Z of NATO and Other International Security Organizations]''. Scarecrow Press. p. 305. ISBN 978-0-8108-7062-8.</ref>), the British became aware of a technological innovation that had never been seen before.<ref name="Morgan Kelly; Cormac Ó Gráda (June 2017)."/> This was what they later named the ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flush_deck&oldid=921645860 flush deck]'' in English. This design was then spread throughout the rest of the world.<ref name="Morgan Kelly; Cormac Ó Gráda (June 2017).">Morgan Kelly; Cormac Ó Gráda (June 2017). ''[http://www.ucd.ie/t4cms/WP17_11.pdf Technological Dynamism in a Stagnant Sector: Safety at Sea during the Early Industrial Revolution]''. University College, Dublin. School of Economics. p. 1-45 (p. 5). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191017062439/http://www.ucd.ie/t4cms/WP17_11.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 17th, 2019.</ref>
**A flush deck can be visualised as a deck that runs from the beginning of a ship to the end of a ship, which is continuous and unbroken.<ref name="globalsecurity">''[https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ship/sail-decks.htm Sailing Ship Decks]''. Global Security. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191017071635/https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ship/sail-decks.htm WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 17th, 2019.</ref><ref name="FordHamilton2012">Ford, Ben; Hamilton, Donny L.; Catsambis, Alexis; Steffy, J. Richard (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Maritime Archaeology. ''[https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199336005.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199336005-e-48 Illustrated Glossary of Ship and Boat Terms]''. 1. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199336005.013.0048</ref><ref name="definitionmarineinsight">''[https://www.marineinsight.com/marine-navigation/10-types-of-decks-every-seafarer-should-know/ 10 Types of Decks Every Seafarer Should Know]''. Marine Insight. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20170804130213/https://www.marineinsight.com/marine-navigation/10-types-of-decks-every-seafarer-should-know/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 17th, 2019.</ref> In the 20th century this type of ship design was especially used for a new class of aircraft carriers operated by the USA (most notably, the USA's first aircraft carrier, the ''USS Langley'', first commissioned in 1922<ref>''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8sZGAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA11-PA5&dq=USS+Langley+flushdeck&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiNoqKUm6PlAhVJi1wKHeMeADcQ6AEIKzAA#v=onepage&q=USS%20Langley%20flushdeck&f=false Technical Data Digest]''. Air Documents Division, Intelligence T-2, Air Matériel Command. 1948. p. 11.</ref>) and several classes of American destroyers (most notably the ''Caldwell-classes'', ''Wickes-classes'' and ''Clemson-classes'' which were all fully flushed deck designs that were used in WWII<ref name="Lardas2018">Mark Lardas (28 August 2018). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WjNWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12&dq=Caldwell-class+flush+deck&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiXotPIm6PlAhVZilwKHVTnAx4Q6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q=Caldwell-class%20flush%20deck&f=false US Flush-Deck Destroyers 1916–45: Caldwell, Wickes, and Clemson classes]''. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4728-1998-7.</ref>). There are many classes of ship that still use the flush deck design, most notably LPG-carriers.<ref name="maritimebook">''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780750689878000020 The Maritime Engineering Reference Book (Marine Vehicle Types)]''. 2008. 43–74. doi:10.1016/b978-0-7506-8987-8.00002-0.</ref>
**According to Western historians, this Bengali invention was ''"duplicated"'' by the naval architect<ref name="David K. Brown (2014)">David K. Brown (2014). ''[https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-64867 Snodgrass, Gabriel]''. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191018025807/https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-64867 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 18th, 2019.</ref> Gabriel Snodgrass (1719—1799<ref name="Records1974">India Office Library and Records (1974). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=12Kn-SvPxmoC&q=Gabriel+Snodgrass+(1719%E2%80%941799)&dq=Gabriel+Snodgrass+(1719%E2%80%941799)&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjKwJzK6KTlAhVLJFAKHfkUAYkQ6AEILjAB Report for the Year Ended...]''. India Office Library & Records. p. 84.</ref>), who directly copied it from the ''"the hull pattern of a Bengal rice ship"'' in the 1760s,<ref name="Morgan Kelly; Cormac Ó Gráda (June 2017)."/> Snodgrass clearly saw the advantageous nature of the design; which consisted of a ''"single, strong, well-cambered flush deck with watertight hatches that could be battened down against heavy seas"''.<ref name="Morgan Kelly; Cormac Ó Gráda (June 2017)."/> They were adopted by the British because the flush decks made the hulls stiffer and ''"less prone to leak[ages]"'' and also meant that ships would not ''"occasionally disintegrate in heavy seas"''.<ref name="Morgan Kelly; Cormac Ó Gráda (June 2017)."/> This would go on to give the British significant advantages.
:::*Bengal rice ships were enormously profitable vessels, capable to generating vast amounts of trade because of their design.<ref name="Frey2014"/> For example, in 1800, according to British chroniclers,  a Bengal ''"rice ship making four runs annually across the Bay of Bengal could clear a profit of £9,500 after paying operating costs"''.<ref name="Frey2014">Frey, James W. (2014). ''[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-review-of-social-history/article/getting-away-with-murder-the-wrongful-deaths-of-lascars-aboard-the-union-in-1802/0DC53B10D12977C99C07AB647AE84B04 Getting Away with Murder: The Wrongful Deaths of Lascars Aboard the Union in 1802]''. International Review of Social History. 59 (S22): 45–68. doi:10.1017/S0020859014000327. ISSN 0020-8590.</ref> According to the Bank of England, in 2018, taking inflation into account, this would amount to a grand total of £781,674.07 pounds per ship.<ref name="bankofenglandinflation">''[https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/monetary-policy/inflation/inflation-calculator Input: £9,500 (c. 1800) to 2018 Great British Pound]''. Bank of England. Retrieved October 23rd, 2019.</ref> The Mughals were known to have built more than 3,000 of them. This trade made them so rich that the Subah Bangala accounted for over 50% of the Mughal Empire's gross domestic product (GDP). This industry was destroyed by the British who transferred all the money generated here to Britain, which fueled the Industrial Revolution.
::*The British East India Company had their own ships, which were separate from those of the British Royal Navy and which were called ''East Indiamen'' (the latter used their own vessels which were known as the ''King's Ships'').<ref name="Parkinson2013134-135">C. Northcote Parkinson (11 January 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8KosBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136&dq=Flush+deck+bengal&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjel4n4-bbkAhWkQUEAHbITDpEQ6AEIMTAB#v=snippet&q=bengal%20flush%20deck&f=false Trade in Eastern Seas 1793-1813]''. Routledge. pp. 134–139. ISBN 978-1-136-23557-3.</ref> These ships gradually ''"attained a degree of superiority"'' over time, mainly through the Company's contacts in the Bengal.<ref name="Parkinson2013134-135"/> Gabriel Snodgrass (1719—1799) was sent here to work as a shipwright at sometime in the the 18th century, only returning to the United Kingdom in 1757.<ref name="Parkinson2013134-135"/> He was the chief surveyor of Britain and worked right up to 1796.<ref name="Parkinson2013134-135"/> In 1771 and 1791, he presented all that he learned in the Bengal to the House of Commons, who began introducing reforms to the Navy which ended up having some ''"vitally important results"''.<ref name="Parkinson2013134-135"/>
::**One of these was the introduction of the ''"flush deck"'' (or ''"flush upper deck"'').<ref name="Parkinson2013134-135"/> Snodgrass directly copied the design from, and indeed ''"everything seems to point to the conclusion that it was"'', the Muslim Bengalis.<ref name="Parkinson2013349"/> This design was radical because it meant that ships that had previously had a deep waist took on water, which was very difficult to get rid of.<ref name="Parkinson2013134-135"/> It meant that water would accumulate and trap itself on the ship.<ref name="Parkinson2013134-135"/> This was particularly dangerous in storms or heavy seas, as there was a significant risk of the ship capsizing.<ref name="Parkinson2013134-135"/> With this new design, water escaped as quickly it came in.<ref name="Parkinson2013134-135"/> The justification for it's use became all the more important when significant numbers of deep-waisted ships kept sinking whereas the new ships wouldn't.<ref name="Parkinson2013134-135"/> 
::***Another particularly important advantage of having the flush deck was in combating piracy.<ref name="Parkinson2013349">C. Northcote Parkinson (11 January 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8KosBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA349&dq=Flush+deck+bengal&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjel4n4-bbkAhWkQUEAHbITDpEQ6AEIMTAB#v=snippet&q=bengal%20flush%20deck&f=false Trade in Eastern Seas 1793-1813]''. Routledge. p. 349. ISBN 978-1-136-23557-3.</ref> It was only on the flush deck designs that pirates were able to be ''"confined to the upper deck"'', making it substantially easier to defend against them.<ref name="Parkinson2013349"/>
::*Flush decks had never been seen before in Europe; ''"[s]ince medieval times, European ships had a stepped deck, raised at both ends and lower in the middle"''.<ref name="KellyÓ Gráda2018">Kelly, Morgan; Ó Gráda, Cormac (2018). ''"[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ehr.12696 Speed under sail during the early industrial revolution (c. 1750–1830)]"''. The Economic History Review. 72 (2): 459–480. doi:10.1111/ehr.12696. ISSN 0013-0117.</ref><ref name="O'GradaKelly2014">O'Grada, Cormac; Kelly, Morgan (2014). ''"[https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2412955 Speed Under Sail, 1750-1850]"''. SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2412955. ISSN 1556-5068.</ref><ref name="Morgan Kelly; Cormac Ó Gráda (2017)2">Morgan Kelly; Cormac Ó Gráda (2017). ''[https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/184811 Technological dynamism in a stagnant sector: Safety at sea during the early Industrial Revolution]''. University College, Dublin. School of Economics. p. 1-45. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191017062745/https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/184811 WayBackMachine Link]''. ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10419/184811 Alternative Link]''. Retrieved October 17th, 2019.</ref> These European ships ''"offered an effective fighting platform but at the cost of seaworthiness: the low waist deck caused the vessel to ship water each time it dipped in a heavy sea, flooding lower decks. As well as being prone to foundering, these ships were structurally weak"''.<ref name="KellyÓ Gráda2018"/> As a result, the Bengali design was adopted. It was later further developed in Europe, with ''"increas[ed] use of iron, first to attach decks securely to hulls, and then to brace ships more generally"''.<ref name="Morgan Kelly; Cormac Ó Gráda (June 2017)."/> 
::**Interestingly the British Royal Navy was resistant to the idea, and did not adopt this design until the 1830s, even though the British East India Company did well before them.<ref name="KellyÓ Gráda2018"/><ref name="O'GradaKelly2014"/><ref name="Morgan Kelly; Cormac Ó Gráda (2017)2"/> However, once adopted, it gave them a significant military edge.
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===Mechanical Engineering (7)===
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[List of Inventions and Discoveries in Mechanics During the Islamic Golden Age]]'''''

[[File:Ur4Plm.jpg|thumb|right|150px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;font-size:90%;">The Worm-gear/Worm-drive. It's double helix design prevents back-turning, guaranteeing forward motion.</div>]]
*'''Worm Gear'''—It is not known who exactly the worm gear was built by, but it first appeared in the 13th—14th centuries in the Delhi Sultanate (1206—1526;<ref name="Stewart2013">Devin J. Stewart (2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q1I0pcrFFSUC&pg=PA127&dq=Delhi+Sultanate+1206-1526&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjt0ZvEubfgAhU5UxUIHTLPDtUQ6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=Delhi%20Sultanate%201206-1526&f=false The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought]''. Princeton University Press. p. 127. ISBN 0-691-13484-7.</ref> modern day South Asia<ref name="SluglettCurrie2015">Peter Sluglett; Andrew Currie (30 January 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XjxyBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA50&dq=Delhi+Sultanate+atlas+of+islamic+history&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjViryrvLfgAhUUTBUIHfQ-CGQQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Delhi%20Sultanate%20atlas%20of%20islamic%20history&f=false Atlas of Islamic History]''. Routledge. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-317-58897-9.</ref>).<ref name="Irfan Habib (2011).">Irfan Habib (2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA53#v=onepage&q&f=false Economic History of Medieval India, 1200-1500]''. Pearson Education India. p. 53. ISBN 978-81-317-2791-1.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"What was needed to make the roller-gin more effective was the worm-gearing and the crank-handle, whereby one roller alone would need to be rotated, while the gearing took care of the other one. One possible clue which may narrow the date of its introduction is the fact that when the cotton gin reached China from India in the thirteenth century, it still lacked worm-gearing: this is not shown in the depiction of the gin in 1313 by Wang Zhen, nor mentioned in his account of the device. This could imply that worm-gearing came to be employed in the Indian cotton gin only after it had diffused from here to China. If so, the incorporation of the gearing could be placed within the span of the thirteenth to the seventeenth century when the geared sugar mills are first reported. Of the crank-handle, the earliest depictions belong to the seventeenth century"''.
#Irfan Habib (2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA53#v=onepage&q&f=false Economic History of Medieval India, 1200-1500]''. Pearson Education India. p. 53. ISBN 978-81-317-2791-1.</ref> Worm gears are ''"used to secure by compact means, a large reduction of speed between driving and driven shafts with a proportionate increase (except for frictional losses) in the torque of the driven shaft"''.<ref name="JonesRyffel1984">Franklin D. Jones; Henry H. Ryffel (1984). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x2GThADLN-sC&pg=PA92&dq=Worm+Gear&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjPx_mxvbfgAhWxtXEKHdJyCscQ6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=Worm%20Gear&f=false Gear Design Simplified]''. Industrial Press Inc. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-8311-1159-5.</ref> It is very useful because the helix thread prevents back-turning (locking itself in place) thus it being incapable of backwards rotation.<ref name="JonesRyffel1984"/> It is still for this today.<ref name="JonesRyffel1984"/> It was first used in geared sugar mills (see below).
**'''Geared Sugar Mills'''—The first geared sugar mills were built sometime between the 13th—17th centuries in the Delhi Sultanate (1206—1526<ref name="Stewart2013"/>) empire or the Mughal Empire (1526—1857<ref name="LLC.2010">Berkshire Publishing Group, LLC. (10 July 2010). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rP5lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71&dq=Mughal+Empire+(1526%E2%80%941857)&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj9483Y_fPgAhWysHEKHaexB28Q6AEIMjAB#v=onepage&q=Mughal%20Empire%20(1526%E2%80%941857)&f=false Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History, 2nd Edition, McNeil-Bently-Christian-Croiser, 2010: Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History]''. Bukupedia. p. 71. GGKEY:HHYLKJ7D4ZB.</ref>) in what is now today Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.<ref name="Habib2011gearedsugarmill">Irfan Habib (2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA53#v=onepage&q&f=false Economic History of Medieval India, 1200-1500]''. Pearson Education India. p. 53. ISBN 978-81-317-2791-1.</ref> Cotton gin rollers (itself a Subcontinent invention) reached China in the 13th century, but crucially the Chinese do not mention having used worm gears at all even through to the 14th century.<ref name="Habib2011gearedsugarmill"/> Wang Zhen (fl. 1290—1333<ref>''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rcoyAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA306&dq=Wang+Zhen+(fl.+1290%E2%80%941333)&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjs_KX0_fPgAhWvThUIHbATBXcQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Wang%20Zhen%20(fl.%201290%E2%80%941333)&f=false Cultures of Knowledge: Technology in Chinese History]''. BRILL. 14 November 2011. p. 306. ISBN 978-90-04-21936-6.</ref>) for example in 1313 depicted the cotton gin rollers which were clearly being used in China, but from his drawings it clearly lacked a depiction of a worm gear.<ref name="Habib2011gearedsugarmill"/> This thus indicates that the first geared sugar mills originated in the Indian subcontinent during Muslim rule.
*'''Draw Bar'''—The draw bar was first invented in Taxila (modern day Rawalpindi, Punjab, Pakistan) in the 5th century where the earliest archaeological evidence of such a device comes from.<ref name="Habib2011drawbar">Irfan Habib (2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA52#v=onepage&q=draw%20bar&f=false Economic History of Medieval India, 1200-1500]''. Pearson Education India. pp. 52–53. ISBN 978-81-317-2791-1.</ref> It was used to complete a full circular motion of oxen when ploughing fields in agriculture.<ref name="Habib2011drawbar"/> It was subsequently then mentioned in writing in c. 950 in the ''Abhidhanaratnamala'', then again in c. 1050 in the ''Vaijayanti'' and then again in c. 1100 in the ''Ramacharita''.<ref name="Habib2011drawbar"/> The invention was revolutionary as it's use could be used for a range of different applications.<ref name="Habib2011drawbar"/> One was in pressing out oil from plants (perhaps in 804).<ref name="Habib2011drawbar"/>

[[File:Vertical windmills.jpg|thumb|right|110px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;font-size:100%;">Windmills were invented in medieval Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan.</div>]]
*'''Horizontal Axis Windmill'''—The first horizontal axis windmills were invented in Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan.<ref name="Lucas2006">Adam Lucas (2006). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5QgU43HVpyIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Wind,+Water,+Work:+Ancient+and+Medieval+Milling+Technology&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiYxtLtpP7gAhWxUBUIHZxwB3QQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Wind%2C%20Water%2C%20Work%3A%20Ancient%20and%20Medieval%20Milling%20Technology&f=false Wind, Water, Work: Ancient And Medieval Milling Technology]''. BRILL. p. 65. ISBN 90-04-14649-0.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"From the ninth or tenth century onwards, there are records of the new invention of the horizontal windmill being put to a variety of uses, from grinding grain to pumping water and crushing sugar-cane in what is now Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran"''.
#Adam Lucas (2006). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5QgU43HVpyIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Wind,+Water,+Work:+Ancient+and+Medieval+Milling+Technology&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiYxtLtpP7gAhWxUBUIHZxwB3QQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Wind%2C%20Water%2C%20Work%3A%20Ancient%20and%20Medieval%20Milling%20Technology&f=false Wind, Water, Work: Ancient And Medieval Milling Technology]''. BRILL. p. 65. ISBN 90-04-14649-0.</ref> These were invented in the ninth (801—900) or tenth (901—1000) centuries.<ref name="Lucas2006"/> These were used to grind grain, pumping water and crushing sugar-cane so that sugar could be extracted.<ref name="Lucas2006"/> Horizontal axis windmills did not appear in Europe until the 12th century (1101—1200),<ref name="Moon2007">Francis C. Moon (30 May 2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H1UPPfn2w6oC&pg=PA185&dq=Horizontal+axis+windmills+did+not+appear+in+Europe+until&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj9-riPrf7gAhUTShUIHcQJDdYQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Horizontal%20axis%20windmills%20did%20not%20appear%20in%20Europe%20until&f=false The Machines of Leonardo Da Vinci and Franz Reuleaux: Kinematics of Machines from the Renaissance to the 20th Century]''. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 185. ISBN 978-1-4020-5598-0.</ref> or 13th century (1201—1300), when they were brought back by the crusaders during the European crusading period.<ref name="Martín2016">Mariano Martín (22 March 2016). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pabWCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28&dq=Horizontal+axis+windmills+did+not+appear+in+Europe+until&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj9-riPrf7gAhUTShUIHcQJDdYQ6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=Horizontal%20axis%20windmills%20did%20not%20appear%20in%20Europe%20until&f=false Alternative Energy Sources and Technologies: Process Design and Operation]''. Springer. p. 28. ISBN 978-3-319-28752-2.</ref> They were so valuable that planting trees near them was forbidden, and feudal lords could only authorise their construction.<ref name="Martín2016"/>
**'''Windpump'''—The first windpumps were invented in Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan in the ninth (801—900) or tenth (901—1000) centuries as part of the functions of the horizontal axis windmills.<ref name="Lucas2006"/><ref name="Hauser2017">Susan Carol Hauser (October 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JFA0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA50&dq=Windpumps+9th+century+Afghanistan,+Iran+and+Pakistan&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiNgIf6pf7gAhVRqHEKHfx5CV0Q6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Windpumps%209th%20century%20Afghanistan%2C%20Iran%20and%20Pakistan&f=false Barn: Form and Function of an American Icon]''. Voyageur Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-7603-4973-1.</ref> The Europeans later copied these windmills and spread them all across Europe.<ref name="Hauser2017"/> These windpumps would be built in low-lying areas in order to drain water so that the fields may become drier than usual (which would improve agricultural production<ref name="DASSAIKIA2013">Madan Mohan Das; Mimi Das Saikia; Bhargab Mohan Das (22 August 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qZdbAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA362&dq=Windpumps+9th+century+Afghanistan,+Iran+and+Pakistan&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiNgIf6pf7gAhVRqHEKHfx5CV0Q6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=Windpumps%209th%20century%20Afghanistan%2C%20Iran%20and%20Pakistan&f=false Hydraulics and Hydraulic Machines]''. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. p. 362. ISBN 978-81-203-4799-1.</ref>).<ref name="Hauser2017"/> These pumps were also used for pumping water out of wells.<ref name="DASSAIKIA2013"/> The efficiency of the windpumps varies between 7% —30% depending on the types of blades and pumps used.<ref name="DASSAIKIA2013"/>

*'''Lost Wax Casting'''—The earliest known object to have been caste using the lost-wax casting technique originates from the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 7000 BC—c. 1300 BC). The object is a 6,000 year old amulet found in Mehrgarh, Baluchistan, Pakistan.<ref name="ThouryMille2016">Thoury, M.; Mille, B.; Séverin-Fabiani, T.; Robbiola, L.; Réfrégiers, M.; Jarrige, J-F; Bertrand, L. (2016). ''[https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms13356 High spatial dynamics-photoluminescence imaging reveals the metallurgy of the earliest lost-wax cast object]''. Nature Communications. 7 (1). doi:10.1038/ncomms13356. ISSN 2041-1723.</ref> The process is also known as ''"cire perdue"''; it works by shaping wax into a complex design.<ref name="McIntosh2008">Jane McIntosh (2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC&pg=PA406&dq=Lost+Wax+Casting+invented+indus+valley&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj5hPHR5bbiAhW7TBUIHX16BF0Q6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=Lost%20Wax%20Casting%20invented%20indus%20valley&f=false The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives]''. ABC-CLIO. p. 406. ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2.</ref> It is then coated in clay, and then placed into an oven and fired.<ref name="McIntosh2008"/> As the wax runs out, it replaces it with metal.<ref name="McIntosh2008"/> The mould is then smashed and the object retrieved.<ref name="McIntosh2008"/> This technique was later used by medieval Muslims to invent seamless globes (see below).
**'''Seamless Celestial Globe'''—Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman (c. 16th century) was the first person in history to invent the seamless metal globe between 1589—1590.<ref name="Hart-Davis2017">Adam Hart-Davis (3 April 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YWfvDkECNO4C&pg=PA59&dq=Ali+Kashmiri+ibn+Luqman&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjR_8aK_bTgAhXmQhUIHSstBxEQ6AEITDAG#v=onepage&q=Ali%20Kashmiri%20ibn%20Luqman&f=false Engineers: From the Great Pyramids to Spacecraft]''. Dorling Kindersley Limited. p. 59. ISBN 978-1-4093-2224-5.</ref><ref name="Najma Kazi (Unknown Date).">Najma Kazi (Unknown Date). ''[http://muslimheritage.com/article/seeking-seamless-scientific-wonders-review-emilie-savage-smiths-work Seeking Seamless Scientific Wonders: Review of Emilie Savage-Smith's Work]''. Muslim Heritage. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190212012544/http://muslimheritage.com/article/seeking-seamless-scientific-wonders-review-emilie-savage-smiths-work WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved February 12th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Jaimini Sarkar (August 2011).">Jaimini Sarkar (August 2011). ''[http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/12530/1/SR%2048(8)%208-14.pdf Indian Science Through the Ages]''. Science Reporter. NISCAIR Online Periodicals Repository. p. 8-14. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191009023310/http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/12530/1/SR%2048(8)%208-14.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved February 12th, 2019.</ref> They were invented in Kashmir, modern day Pakistan, and were also produced in Lahore, also in Pakistan (the latter created by a family of specialists consisting of a family of four generations).<ref name="Selin2008p1034–1035">Helaine Selin (12 March 2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kt9DIY1g9HYC&pg=PA1035&dq=Islamicate+Celestial+Globes:+Their+History,+Construction,+and+Use&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiE8LLhirXgAhUKRhUIHX3WAwwQ6AEIOjAD#v=onepage&q=Islamicate%20Celestial%20Globes%3A%20Their%20History%2C%20Construction%2C%20and%20Use&f=false Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures]''. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 1034–1035. ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.</ref> Up until the 1985,<ref name="Savage-SmithBelloli1985">Savage-Smith, Emilie; Belloli, Andrea P. A. (1985). ''[https://repository.si.edu/handle/10088/2445 Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their History, Construction, and Use]''. Smithsonian Studies in History and Technology (46): 1–354. doi:10.5479/si.00810258.46.1. ISSN 0081-0258.</ref> producing spheres without seams was considered a technical impossibility, even with technology available in the time, until this was re-discovered.<ref name="Hart-Davis2017"/><ref name="Haroon Mirani (March 7th, 2014).">Haroon Mirani (March 7th, 2014). ''[https://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/gk-magazine/celebrating-luqman-s-celestial-sphere/165309.html Celebrating Luqman’s Celestial Sphere]''. Greater Kashmir. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190212013233/https://www.greaterkashmir.com/(X(1)S(m5sm11zpxcwpav55uxpxmq45))/article/news.aspx?story_id=165309&catid=11&mid=53&AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved February 12th, 2019.</ref> At least 21 of these globes have survived into the present.<ref name="Hart-Davis2017"/>
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'''[[#Astronomy & Universe (4)|Astronomy]]''' •
'''[[#Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)|Agriculture, Food & Beverage]]''' •
'''[[#Biology (2)|Biology]]''' (''[[#Paleontology (10)|Paleontology]]'') •
'''[[#Chemistry (5)|Chemistry]]''' •
'''[[#Computing (4)|Computing]]''' (''[[#Video-gaming (1)|Video-gaming]] • [[#Board Games (1)|Board-games]]'') •
'''[[#Mathematics (3)|Mathematics]]''' •
'''[[#Medicines (1)|Medicine]]''' (''[[#Disease Eradication (1)|Disease Eradication]]'' • ''[[#Genetics & Disease (5)|Genetics & Disease]]'' • ''[[#Medical Instruments (6)|Instruments]]'') •
'''[[#Physics (5)|Physics]]''' •
'''Engineering''' (''[[#Naval Engineering (1)|Naval]]'' • ''[[#Mechanical Engineering (7)|Mechanical]]'' • ''[[#Handtool Engineering (3)|Handtool]]'' • ''[[#Textile Engineering (3)|Textile]]'' (''[[#Clothing (2)|Clothing]]'') • ''[[#Architectural Engineering (4)|Architectural]]'') •
'''[[#Sport & Recreation (2)|Sport & Recreation]]''' •
'''[[#Disputed (2)|Disputed]]''' •
[[#Further Reading|Further Reading]] •
[[#Sources|Sources]] •
(''[[#Footnotes|Footnotes]]'' • ''[[#References|References]]'' • ''[[#Acknowledgements|Acknowledgements]]'') •
[[#External Links|External Links]] •
'''''Total Inventions & Discoveries Listed: 77'''''
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[List of Inventions and Discoveries in Mechanics During the Islamic Golden Age]]'''''

[[File:Ur4Plm.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;font-size:90%;">The Worm-gear/Worm-drive. It's double helix design prevents back-turning, guaranteeing forward motion.</div>]]
*'''Worm Gear'''—It is not known who exactly the worm gear was built by, but it first appeared in the 13th—14th centuries in the Delhi Sultanate (1206—1526;<ref name="Stewart2013">Devin J. Stewart (2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q1I0pcrFFSUC&pg=PA127&dq=Delhi+Sultanate+1206-1526&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjt0ZvEubfgAhU5UxUIHTLPDtUQ6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=Delhi%20Sultanate%201206-1526&f=false The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought]''. Princeton University Press. p. 127. ISBN 0-691-13484-7.</ref> modern day South Asia<ref name="SluglettCurrie2015">Peter Sluglett; Andrew Currie (30 January 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XjxyBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA50&dq=Delhi+Sultanate+atlas+of+islamic+history&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjViryrvLfgAhUUTBUIHfQ-CGQQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Delhi%20Sultanate%20atlas%20of%20islamic%20history&f=false Atlas of Islamic History]''. Routledge. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-317-58897-9.</ref>).<ref name="Irfan Habib (2011).">Irfan Habib (2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA53#v=onepage&q&f=false Economic History of Medieval India, 1200-1500]''. Pearson Education India. p. 53. ISBN 978-81-317-2791-1.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"What was needed to make the roller-gin more effective was the worm-gearing and the crank-handle, whereby one roller alone would need to be rotated, while the gearing took care of the other one. One possible clue which may narrow the date of its introduction is the fact that when the cotton gin reached China from India in the thirteenth century, it still lacked worm-gearing: this is not shown in the depiction of the gin in 1313 by Wang Zhen, nor mentioned in his account of the device. This could imply that worm-gearing came to be employed in the Indian cotton gin only after it had diffused from here to China. If so, the incorporation of the gearing could be placed within the span of the thirteenth to the seventeenth century when the geared sugar mills are first reported. Of the crank-handle, the earliest depictions belong to the seventeenth century"''.
#Irfan Habib (2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA53#v=onepage&q&f=false Economic History of Medieval India, 1200-1500]''. Pearson Education India. p. 53. ISBN 978-81-317-2791-1.</ref> Worm gears are ''"used to secure by compact means, a large reduction of speed between driving and driven shafts with a proportionate increase (except for frictional losses) in the torque of the driven shaft"''.<ref name="JonesRyffel1984">Franklin D. Jones; Henry H. Ryffel (1984). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x2GThADLN-sC&pg=PA92&dq=Worm+Gear&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjPx_mxvbfgAhWxtXEKHdJyCscQ6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=Worm%20Gear&f=false Gear Design Simplified]''. Industrial Press Inc. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-8311-1159-5.</ref> It is very useful because the helix thread prevents back-turning (locking itself in place) thus it being incapable of backwards rotation.<ref name="JonesRyffel1984"/> It is still for this today.<ref name="JonesRyffel1984"/> It was first used in geared sugar mills (see below).
**'''Geared Sugar Mills'''—The first geared sugar mills were built sometime between the 13th—17th centuries in the Delhi Sultanate (1206—1526<ref name="Stewart2013"/>) empire or the Mughal Empire (1526—1857<ref name="LLC.2010">Berkshire Publishing Group, LLC. (10 July 2010). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rP5lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71&dq=Mughal+Empire+(1526%E2%80%941857)&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj9483Y_fPgAhWysHEKHaexB28Q6AEIMjAB#v=onepage&q=Mughal%20Empire%20(1526%E2%80%941857)&f=false Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History, 2nd Edition, McNeil-Bently-Christian-Croiser, 2010: Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History]''. Bukupedia. p. 71. GGKEY:HHYLKJ7D4ZB.</ref>) in what is now today Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.<ref name="Habib2011gearedsugarmill">Irfan Habib (2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA53#v=onepage&q&f=false Economic History of Medieval India, 1200-1500]''. Pearson Education India. p. 53. ISBN 978-81-317-2791-1.</ref> Cotton gin rollers (itself a Subcontinent invention) reached China in the 13th century, but crucially the Chinese do not mention having used worm gears at all even through to the 14th century.<ref name="Habib2011gearedsugarmill"/> Wang Zhen (fl. 1290—1333<ref>''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rcoyAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA306&dq=Wang+Zhen+(fl.+1290%E2%80%941333)&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjs_KX0_fPgAhWvThUIHbATBXcQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Wang%20Zhen%20(fl.%201290%E2%80%941333)&f=false Cultures of Knowledge: Technology in Chinese History]''. BRILL. 14 November 2011. p. 306. ISBN 978-90-04-21936-6.</ref>) for example in 1313 depicted the cotton gin rollers which were clearly being used in China, but from his drawings it clearly lacked a depiction of a worm gear.<ref name="Habib2011gearedsugarmill"/> This thus indicates that the first geared sugar mills originated in the Indian subcontinent during Muslim rule.
*'''Draw Bar'''—The draw bar was first invented in Taxila (modern day Rawalpindi, Punjab, Pakistan) in the 5th century where the earliest archaeological evidence of such a device comes from.<ref name="Habib2011drawbar">Irfan Habib (2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA52#v=onepage&q=draw%20bar&f=false Economic History of Medieval India, 1200-1500]''. Pearson Education India. pp. 52–53. ISBN 978-81-317-2791-1.</ref> It was used to complete a full circular motion of oxen when ploughing fields in agriculture.<ref name="Habib2011drawbar"/> It was subsequently then mentioned in writing in c. 950 in the ''Abhidhanaratnamala'', then again in c. 1050 in the ''Vaijayanti'' and then again in c. 1100 in the ''Ramacharita''.<ref name="Habib2011drawbar"/> The invention was revolutionary as it's use could be used for a range of different applications.<ref name="Habib2011drawbar"/> One was in pressing out oil from plants (perhaps in 804).<ref name="Habib2011drawbar"/>

[[File:Vertical windmills.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;font-size:100%;">Windmills were invented in medieval Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan.</div>]]
*'''Horizontal Axis Windmill'''—The first horizontal axis windmills were invented in Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan.<ref name="Lucas2006">Adam Lucas (2006). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5QgU43HVpyIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Wind,+Water,+Work:+Ancient+and+Medieval+Milling+Technology&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiYxtLtpP7gAhWxUBUIHZxwB3QQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Wind%2C%20Water%2C%20Work%3A%20Ancient%20and%20Medieval%20Milling%20Technology&f=false Wind, Water, Work: Ancient And Medieval Milling Technology]''. BRILL. p. 65. ISBN 90-04-14649-0.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"From the ninth or tenth century onwards, there are records of the new invention of the horizontal windmill being put to a variety of uses, from grinding grain to pumping water and crushing sugar-cane in what is now Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran"''.
#Adam Lucas (2006). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5QgU43HVpyIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Wind,+Water,+Work:+Ancient+and+Medieval+Milling+Technology&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiYxtLtpP7gAhWxUBUIHZxwB3QQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Wind%2C%20Water%2C%20Work%3A%20Ancient%20and%20Medieval%20Milling%20Technology&f=false Wind, Water, Work: Ancient And Medieval Milling Technology]''. BRILL. p. 65. ISBN 90-04-14649-0.</ref> These were invented in the ninth (801—900) or tenth (901—1000) centuries.<ref name="Lucas2006"/> These were used to grind grain, pumping water and crushing sugar-cane so that sugar could be extracted.<ref name="Lucas2006"/> Horizontal axis windmills did not appear in Europe until the 12th century (1101—1200),<ref name="Moon2007">Francis C. Moon (30 May 2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H1UPPfn2w6oC&pg=PA185&dq=Horizontal+axis+windmills+did+not+appear+in+Europe+until&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj9-riPrf7gAhUTShUIHcQJDdYQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Horizontal%20axis%20windmills%20did%20not%20appear%20in%20Europe%20until&f=false The Machines of Leonardo Da Vinci and Franz Reuleaux: Kinematics of Machines from the Renaissance to the 20th Century]''. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 185. ISBN 978-1-4020-5598-0.</ref> or 13th century (1201—1300), when they were brought back by the crusaders during the European crusading period.<ref name="Martín2016">Mariano Martín (22 March 2016). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pabWCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28&dq=Horizontal+axis+windmills+did+not+appear+in+Europe+until&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj9-riPrf7gAhUTShUIHcQJDdYQ6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=Horizontal%20axis%20windmills%20did%20not%20appear%20in%20Europe%20until&f=false Alternative Energy Sources and Technologies: Process Design and Operation]''. Springer. p. 28. ISBN 978-3-319-28752-2.</ref> They were so valuable that planting trees near them was forbidden, and feudal lords could only authorise their construction.<ref name="Martín2016"/>
**'''Windpump'''—The first windpumps were invented in Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan in the ninth (801—900) or tenth (901—1000) centuries as part of the functions of the horizontal axis windmills.<ref name="Lucas2006"/><ref name="Hauser2017">Susan Carol Hauser (October 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JFA0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA50&dq=Windpumps+9th+century+Afghanistan,+Iran+and+Pakistan&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiNgIf6pf7gAhVRqHEKHfx5CV0Q6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Windpumps%209th%20century%20Afghanistan%2C%20Iran%20and%20Pakistan&f=false Barn: Form and Function of an American Icon]''. Voyageur Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-7603-4973-1.</ref> The Europeans later copied these windmills and spread them all across Europe.<ref name="Hauser2017"/> These windpumps would be built in low-lying areas in order to drain water so that the fields may become drier than usual (which would improve agricultural production<ref name="DASSAIKIA2013">Madan Mohan Das; Mimi Das Saikia; Bhargab Mohan Das (22 August 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qZdbAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA362&dq=Windpumps+9th+century+Afghanistan,+Iran+and+Pakistan&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiNgIf6pf7gAhVRqHEKHfx5CV0Q6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=Windpumps%209th%20century%20Afghanistan%2C%20Iran%20and%20Pakistan&f=false Hydraulics and Hydraulic Machines]''. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. p. 362. ISBN 978-81-203-4799-1.</ref>).<ref name="Hauser2017"/> These pumps were also used for pumping water out of wells.<ref name="DASSAIKIA2013"/> The efficiency of the windpumps varies between 7% —30% depending on the types of blades and pumps used.<ref name="DASSAIKIA2013"/>

*'''Lost Wax Casting'''—The earliest known object to have been caste using the lost-wax casting technique originates from the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 7000 BC—c. 1300 BC). The object is a 6,000 year old amulet found in Mehrgarh, Baluchistan, Pakistan.<ref name="ThouryMille2016">Thoury, M.; Mille, B.; Séverin-Fabiani, T.; Robbiola, L.; Réfrégiers, M.; Jarrige, J-F; Bertrand, L. (2016). ''[https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms13356 High spatial dynamics-photoluminescence imaging reveals the metallurgy of the earliest lost-wax cast object]''. Nature Communications. 7 (1). doi:10.1038/ncomms13356. ISSN 2041-1723.</ref> The process is also known as ''"cire perdue"''; it works by shaping wax into a complex design.<ref name="McIntosh2008">Jane McIntosh (2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC&pg=PA406&dq=Lost+Wax+Casting+invented+indus+valley&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj5hPHR5bbiAhW7TBUIHX16BF0Q6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=Lost%20Wax%20Casting%20invented%20indus%20valley&f=false The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives]''. ABC-CLIO. p. 406. ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2.</ref> It is then coated in clay, and then placed into an oven and fired.<ref name="McIntosh2008"/> As the wax runs out, it replaces it with metal.<ref name="McIntosh2008"/> The mould is then smashed and the object retrieved.<ref name="McIntosh2008"/> This technique was later used by medieval Muslims to invent seamless globes (see below).
**'''Seamless Celestial Globe'''—Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman (c. 16th century) was the first person in history to invent the seamless metal globe between 1589—1590.<ref name="Hart-Davis2017">Adam Hart-Davis (3 April 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YWfvDkECNO4C&pg=PA59&dq=Ali+Kashmiri+ibn+Luqman&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjR_8aK_bTgAhXmQhUIHSstBxEQ6AEITDAG#v=onepage&q=Ali%20Kashmiri%20ibn%20Luqman&f=false Engineers: From the Great Pyramids to Spacecraft]''. Dorling Kindersley Limited. p. 59. ISBN 978-1-4093-2224-5.</ref><ref name="Najma Kazi (Unknown Date).">Najma Kazi (Unknown Date). ''[http://muslimheritage.com/article/seeking-seamless-scientific-wonders-review-emilie-savage-smiths-work Seeking Seamless Scientific Wonders: Review of Emilie Savage-Smith's Work]''. Muslim Heritage. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190212012544/http://muslimheritage.com/article/seeking-seamless-scientific-wonders-review-emilie-savage-smiths-work WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved February 12th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Jaimini Sarkar (August 2011).">Jaimini Sarkar (August 2011). ''[http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/12530/1/SR%2048(8)%208-14.pdf Indian Science Through the Ages]''. Science Reporter. NISCAIR Online Periodicals Repository. p. 8-14. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191009023310/http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/12530/1/SR%2048(8)%208-14.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved February 12th, 2019.</ref> They were invented in Kashmir, modern day Pakistan, and were also produced in Lahore, also in Pakistan (the latter created by a family of specialists consisting of a family of four generations).<ref name="Selin2008p1034–1035">Helaine Selin (12 March 2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kt9DIY1g9HYC&pg=PA1035&dq=Islamicate+Celestial+Globes:+Their+History,+Construction,+and+Use&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiE8LLhirXgAhUKRhUIHX3WAwwQ6AEIOjAD#v=onepage&q=Islamicate%20Celestial%20Globes%3A%20Their%20History%2C%20Construction%2C%20and%20Use&f=false Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures]''. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 1034–1035. ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.</ref> Up until the 1985,<ref name="Savage-SmithBelloli1985">Savage-Smith, Emilie; Belloli, Andrea P. A. (1985). ''[https://repository.si.edu/handle/10088/2445 Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their History, Construction, and Use]''. Smithsonian Studies in History and Technology (46): 1–354. doi:10.5479/si.00810258.46.1. ISSN 0081-0258.</ref> producing spheres without seams was considered a technical impossibility, even with technology available in the time, until this was re-discovered.<ref name="Hart-Davis2017"/><ref name="Haroon Mirani (March 7th, 2014).">Haroon Mirani (March 7th, 2014). ''[https://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/gk-magazine/celebrating-luqman-s-celestial-sphere/165309.html Celebrating Luqman’s Celestial Sphere]''. Greater Kashmir. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190212013233/https://www.greaterkashmir.com/(X(1)S(m5sm11zpxcwpav55uxpxmq45))/article/news.aspx?story_id=165309&catid=11&mid=53&AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved February 12th, 2019.</ref> At least 21 of these globes have survived into the present.<ref name="Hart-Davis2017"/>
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===Handtool Engineering (3)===
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[List of Inventions and Discoveries in Mechanics During the Islamic Golden Age]]'''''
[[File:Drill bit bead pakistan mehrgarh.jpg|thumb|left|80px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Bead created using Drills.<ref name="KenoyerHeuston2005">Jonathan M. Kenoyer; Kimberley Burton Heuston (2005). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7CjvF88iEE8C&pg=PA40&dq=Bow+drill+were+invented+in+mehrgarh&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjCz9mSyLniAhWASBUIHTgiATwQ6AEIPjAD#v=onepage&q=Bow%20drill%20were%20invented%20in%20mehrgarh&f=false The Ancient South Asian World]''. Oxford University Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-19-52224</ref></div>]]
:::::*'''Bow Drill'''—Between 3,000 BC and 5,000 BC ancient Pakistani people of the Mergarh invented the bow drill.<ref name="KulkeRothermund2004">Hermann Kulke; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC&pg=PR22&dq=0-415-32920-5&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwijrKmvxbniAhXTSBUIHQhFC_MQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=bow%20drill&f=false A History of India]''. Psychology Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-415-32920-0.</ref> According to historians ''"[t]he drill was made of green jasper and was used to drill holes into beads made of lapis lazuli, turquoise and cornelian. Similar drills were found at Shahr-i-Sokhta in eastern Iran and at Chanhu-Daro in the Indus valley but these drills belong to a period which is about one millennium later"''.<ref name="KulkeRothermund2004"/> Amazingly enough bow drills were also independently invented by Native American in the year 1000 (prior to external contact) which were made up of seal leg bone (4,000 to 6,000 years after the Mergarh people had first invented it).<ref name="KulkeRothermund2004"/><ref name="KeokePorterfield2009">Emory Dean Keoke; Kay Marie Porterfield (2009). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIFTVWJH3doC&pg=PA90&dq=bow+drills+are+the+oldest+drills&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiespKp1bniAhV2ShUIHf7sCHYQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=bow%20drills%20are%20the%20oldest%20drills&f=false Encyclopedia of American Indian Contributions to the World: 15,000 Years of Inventions and Innovations]''. Infobase Publishing. p. 90. ISBN 978-1-4381-0990-9.</ref>

:::::*'''Metal Drill'''—Between 6,000 BC and 7,000 BC metal drills were first invented in ancient Pakistan in Mehrgarh.<ref name="Moorey1999"/><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"Although evidence is not yet available for direct study of the emergence of metal drill-bits in Mesopotamia, it has been found further east. The preparation of beads in lapis lazuli, turquoise, and steatite is evident at Mehrgarh in Baluchistan in the seventh millenium BC, bored with flint drill-bits. About 4000 BC a new type of borer in phthanite (a type of jasper) is evident...probablyused with some type of bow-drill. At the beginning of the third millenium BC in Baluchistan, at Mehrgarh, and at Mundigak, and in Pakistan at Chanhu-daro, there are examples of spirally threaded drill-bits...previously thought to be an innovation of the Iron Age. Copper drill-bits of more conventional form had begun to replace those of quartz at about the same time. A lapis lazuli bead was actually found at Mehrgarh with the copper drill-bit still in place after breaking in the course of production, c. 2600 BC..."''
#Peter Roger Stuart Moorey (1999). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_Ixuott4doC&pg=PA108&dq=Bow+drill+were+invented+in+mehrgarh&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiAn4rXx7niAhWFqHEKHZj8BpUQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Bow%20drill%20were%20invented%20in%20mehrgarh&f=false Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence]''. Eisenbrauns. p. 108. ISBN 978-1-57506-042-2.</ref> These were used to prepare beads in lapis lazuli, turquoise and steatite.<ref name="Moorey1999"/> Bead making, metal working and shell working was practised all over ancient Pakistan.<ref name="KenoyerHeuston2005"/> The Pakistani and Gujarat coasts in particular were rich resources for conch shell, whilst Shortughai was for lapis lazuli, all for the purposes of jewellery and craft making.<ref name="KenoyerHeuston2005"/> The craft-makers of Mehrgarh were so extremely skilled that historians believe Mehrgarh was a center of technological creativity and innovation, with much importing and exporting of goods.<ref name="FeuersteinKak2005">Georg Feuerstein; Subhash Kak; David Frawley (2005). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wNlsRZh3rwgC&pg=PA148&dq=Mehrgarh+invented+the+bow+drill&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiXgLGOx7niAhVQRhUIHSIyB3IQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=Mehrgarh%20invented%20the%20bow%20drill&f=false The Search of the Cradle of Civilization: New Light on Ancient India]''. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher. p. 148. ISBN 978-81-208-2037-1.</ref>
:::::**Amazingly enough metal drill bits were also independently invented by Native American tribes between 3,000 BC and 5,000 BC (about 1,000 to 4,000 years later than the Mehrgarh people).<ref name="KeokePorterfield2009"/> They were developed by the Paleo-Indian Native Americans who lived in the Great Lakes area, and was similarly made of copper.<ref name="KeokePorterfield2009"/>

:::::*'''Spiral-threaded (Metal) Drill'''—Previously thought to be an innovation of the Iron age, it was discovered that spiral threaded (metal) drills were invented between 3,000 BC and 4,000 BC in Mehrgarh, ancient Pakistan.<ref name="Moorey1999"/><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"Although evidence is not yet available for direct study of the emergence of metal drill-bits in Mesopotamia, it has been found further east. The preparation of beads in lapis lazuli, turquoise, and steatite is evident at Mehrgarh in Baluchistan in the seventh millenium BC, bored with flint drill-bits. About 4000 BC a new type of borer in phthanite (a type of jasper) is evident...probablyused with some type of bow-drill. At the beginning of the third millenium BC in Baluchistan, at Mehrgarh, and at Mundigak, and in Pakistan at Chanhu-daro, there are examples of spirally threaded drill-bits...previously thought to be an innovation of the Iron Age. Copper drill-bits of more conventional form had begun to replace those of quartz at about the same time. A lapis lazuli bead was actually found at Mehrgarh with the copper drill-bit still in place after breaking in the course of production, c. 2600 BC..."''
#Peter Roger Stuart Moorey (1999). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_Ixuott4doC&pg=PA108&dq=Bow+drill+were+invented+in+mehrgarh&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiAn4rXx7niAhWFqHEKHZj8BpUQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Bow%20drill%20were%20invented%20in%20mehrgarh&f=false Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence]''. Eisenbrauns. p. 108. ISBN 978-1-57506-042-2.</ref>These were made up of copper.<ref name="Moorey1999">Peter Roger Stuart Moorey (1999). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_Ixuott4doC&pg=PA108&dq=Bow+drill+were+invented+in+mehrgarh&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiAn4rXx7niAhWFqHEKHZj8BpUQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Bow%20drill%20were%20invented%20in%20mehrgarh&f=false Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence]''. Eisenbrauns. p. 108. ISBN 978-1-57506-042-2.</ref> These spiral drills bits superseded non-spiral quartz drill bits that were used before, with the replacement of quartz occurring around the same time that the metal spiral drills were invented.<ref name="Moorey1999"/> Interestingly direct evidence that they were used in handcraft and jewellery making is shown by a physical example; a broken spiral copper drill was found inside a jewellery bead in Mehrgarh dated c. 2,600 BC.<ref name="Moorey1999"/>
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{| border="0" id="toc" align=center style="text-align:center; font-size:80%; margin: 0px auto 0px auto; width:100%;"
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<center>
'''[[#Astronomy & Universe (4)|Astronomy]]''' •
'''[[#Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)|Agriculture, Food & Beverage]]''' •
'''[[#Biology (2)|Biology]]''' (''[[#Paleontology (10)|Paleontology]]'') •
'''[[#Chemistry (5)|Chemistry]]''' •
'''[[#Computing (4)|Computing]]''' (''[[#Video-gaming (1)|Video-gaming]] • [[#Board Games (1)|Board-games]]'') •
'''[[#Mathematics (3)|Mathematics]]''' •
'''[[#Medicines (1)|Medicine]]''' (''[[#Disease Eradication (1)|Disease Eradication]]'' • ''[[#Genetics & Disease (5)|Genetics & Disease]]'' • ''[[#Medical Instruments (6)|Instruments]]'') •
'''[[#Physics (5)|Physics]]''' •
'''Engineering''' (''[[#Naval Engineering (1)|Naval]]'' • ''[[#Mechanical Engineering (7)|Mechanical]]'' • ''[[#Handtool Engineering (3)|Handtool]]'' • ''[[#Textile Engineering (3)|Textile]]'' (''[[#Clothing (2)|Clothing]]'') • ''[[#Architectural Engineering (4)|Architectural]]'') •
'''[[#Sport & Recreation (2)|Sport & Recreation]]''' •
'''[[#Disputed (2)|Disputed]]''' •
[[#Further Reading|Further Reading]] •
[[#Sources|Sources]] •
(''[[#Footnotes|Footnotes]]'' • ''[[#References|References]]'' • ''[[#Acknowledgements|Acknowledgements]]'') •
[[#External Links|External Links]] •
'''''Total Inventions & Discoveries Listed: 77'''''
</center>
|}
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[List of Inventions and Discoveries in Mechanics During the Islamic Golden Age]]'''''
[[File:Drill bit bead pakistan mehrgarh.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Bead created using Drills.<ref name="KenoyerHeuston2005">Jonathan M. Kenoyer; Kimberley Burton Heuston (2005). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7CjvF88iEE8C&pg=PA40&dq=Bow+drill+were+invented+in+mehrgarh&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjCz9mSyLniAhWASBUIHTgiATwQ6AEIPjAD#v=onepage&q=Bow%20drill%20were%20invented%20in%20mehrgarh&f=false The Ancient South Asian World]''. Oxford University Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-19-52224</ref></div>]]
*'''Bow Drill'''—Between 3,000 BC and 5,000 BC ancient Pakistani people of the Mergarh invented the bow drill.<ref name="KulkeRothermund2004">Hermann Kulke; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC&pg=PR22&dq=0-415-32920-5&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwijrKmvxbniAhXTSBUIHQhFC_MQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=bow%20drill&f=false A History of India]''. Psychology Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-415-32920-0.</ref> According to historians ''"[t]he drill was made of green jasper and was used to drill holes into beads made of lapis lazuli, turquoise and cornelian. Similar drills were found at Shahr-i-Sokhta in eastern Iran and at Chanhu-Daro in the Indus valley but these drills belong to a period which is about one millennium later"''.<ref name="KulkeRothermund2004"/> Amazingly enough bow drills were also independently invented by Native American in the year 1000 (prior to external contact) which were made up of seal leg bone (4,000 to 6,000 years after the Mergarh people had first invented it).<ref name="KulkeRothermund2004"/><ref name="KeokePorterfield2009">Emory Dean Keoke; Kay Marie Porterfield (2009). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIFTVWJH3doC&pg=PA90&dq=bow+drills+are+the+oldest+drills&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiespKp1bniAhV2ShUIHf7sCHYQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=bow%20drills%20are%20the%20oldest%20drills&f=false Encyclopedia of American Indian Contributions to the World: 15,000 Years of Inventions and Innovations]''. Infobase Publishing. p. 90. ISBN 978-1-4381-0990-9.</ref>

*'''Metal Drill'''—Between 6,000 BC and 7,000 BC metal drills were first invented in ancient Pakistan in Mehrgarh.<ref name="Moorey1999"/><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"Although evidence is not yet available for direct study of the emergence of metal drill-bits in Mesopotamia, it has been found further east. The preparation of beads in lapis lazuli, turquoise, and steatite is evident at Mehrgarh in Baluchistan in the seventh millenium BC, bored with flint drill-bits. About 4000 BC a new type of borer in phthanite (a type of jasper) is evident...probablyused with some type of bow-drill. At the beginning of the third millenium BC in Baluchistan, at Mehrgarh, and at Mundigak, and in Pakistan at Chanhu-daro, there are examples of spirally threaded drill-bits...previously thought to be an innovation of the Iron Age. Copper drill-bits of more conventional form had begun to replace those of quartz at about the same time. A lapis lazuli bead was actually found at Mehrgarh with the copper drill-bit still in place after breaking in the course of production, c. 2600 BC..."''
#Peter Roger Stuart Moorey (1999). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_Ixuott4doC&pg=PA108&dq=Bow+drill+were+invented+in+mehrgarh&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiAn4rXx7niAhWFqHEKHZj8BpUQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Bow%20drill%20were%20invented%20in%20mehrgarh&f=false Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence]''. Eisenbrauns. p. 108. ISBN 978-1-57506-042-2.</ref> These were used to prepare beads in lapis lazuli, turquoise and steatite.<ref name="Moorey1999"/> Bead making, metal working and shell working was practised all over ancient Pakistan.<ref name="KenoyerHeuston2005"/> The Pakistani and Gujarat coasts in particular were rich resources for conch shell, whilst Shortughai was for lapis lazuli, all for the purposes of jewellery and craft making.<ref name="KenoyerHeuston2005"/> The craft-makers of Mehrgarh were so extremely skilled that historians believe Mehrgarh was a center of technological creativity and innovation, with much importing and exporting of goods.<ref name="FeuersteinKak2005">Georg Feuerstein; Subhash Kak; David Frawley (2005). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wNlsRZh3rwgC&pg=PA148&dq=Mehrgarh+invented+the+bow+drill&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiXgLGOx7niAhVQRhUIHSIyB3IQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=Mehrgarh%20invented%20the%20bow%20drill&f=false The Search of the Cradle of Civilization: New Light on Ancient India]''. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher. p. 148. ISBN 978-81-208-2037-1.</ref>
**Amazingly enough metal drill bits were also independently invented by Native American tribes between 3,000 BC and 5,000 BC (about 1,000 to 4,000 years later than the Mehrgarh people).<ref name="KeokePorterfield2009"/> They were developed by the Paleo-Indian Native Americans who lived in the Great Lakes area, and was similarly made of copper.<ref name="KeokePorterfield2009"/>

*'''Spiral-threaded (Metal) Drill'''—Previously thought to be an innovation of the Iron age, it was discovered that spiral threaded (metal) drills were invented between 3,000 BC and 4,000 BC in Mehrgarh, ancient Pakistan.<ref name="Moorey1999"/><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"Although evidence is not yet available for direct study of the emergence of metal drill-bits in Mesopotamia, it has been found further east. The preparation of beads in lapis lazuli, turquoise, and steatite is evident at Mehrgarh in Baluchistan in the seventh millenium BC, bored with flint drill-bits. About 4000 BC a new type of borer in phthanite (a type of jasper) is evident...probablyused with some type of bow-drill. At the beginning of the third millenium BC in Baluchistan, at Mehrgarh, and at Mundigak, and in Pakistan at Chanhu-daro, there are examples of spirally threaded drill-bits...previously thought to be an innovation of the Iron Age. Copper drill-bits of more conventional form had begun to replace those of quartz at about the same time. A lapis lazuli bead was actually found at Mehrgarh with the copper drill-bit still in place after breaking in the course of production, c. 2600 BC..."''
#Peter Roger Stuart Moorey (1999). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_Ixuott4doC&pg=PA108&dq=Bow+drill+were+invented+in+mehrgarh&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiAn4rXx7niAhWFqHEKHZj8BpUQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Bow%20drill%20were%20invented%20in%20mehrgarh&f=false Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence]''. Eisenbrauns. p. 108. ISBN 978-1-57506-042-2.</ref>These were made up of copper.<ref name="Moorey1999">Peter Roger Stuart Moorey (1999). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_Ixuott4doC&pg=PA108&dq=Bow+drill+were+invented+in+mehrgarh&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiAn4rXx7niAhWFqHEKHZj8BpUQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Bow%20drill%20were%20invented%20in%20mehrgarh&f=false Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence]''. Eisenbrauns. p. 108. ISBN 978-1-57506-042-2.</ref> These spiral drills bits superseded non-spiral quartz drill bits that were used before, with the replacement of quartz occurring around the same time that the metal spiral drills were invented.<ref name="Moorey1999"/> Interestingly direct evidence that they were used in handcraft and jewellery making is shown by a physical example; a broken spiral copper drill was found inside a jewellery bead in Mehrgarh dated c. 2,600 BC.<ref name="Moorey1999"/>
</div>
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===Textile Engineering (3)===
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<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">
::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[List of Inventions and Discoveries in Mechanics During the Islamic Golden Age]]'''''
[[File:Tussah silk indus valley ink.jpg|thumb|right|120px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Tussah silk print using an Indus Valley copper plate. White is Tussah silk.</div>]]
*'''Printing, Woodblock Printing''' and '''Printing Plates'''—There is some confusion over the perceptions of who invented printing. Printing itself was not invented in China but is much older, and several civilisations lay claim to it's first invention. To illustrate, the first printing devices are said to have been stencils (the oldest prints to have been found were discovered in a cave in Indonesia, dating to back to at least 40,000 years<ref name="Pallab Ghosh (8th October 2014).">Pallab Ghosh (8th October 2014). ''[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-29415716 Cave paintings change ideas about the origin of art]''. BBC News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190601173518/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-29415716 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved June 1st, 2019.</ref>) and the next oldest are cylinder seals from the Middle-east which were first used for imprinting on rocky materials in 3,500 BC (over 5,500 years ago).<ref name="AnthropologyHansen1998">Donald P. Hansen; Holly Pittman (1998). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h8j76olVKloC&pg=PA75&dq=cylinder+seals+invented+3500+bC&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjjwsDM7MjiAhViUBUIHcdXC4wQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=cylinder%20seals%20invented%203500%20bC&f=false Treasures from the Royal Tombs of Ur]''. University of Pennsylvania. Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. UPenn Museum of Archaeology. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-924171-55-0.</ref> Neither of these techniques is truly printing. 
**China claims to have invented woodblock printing in the year 200 (over 1,800 years ago),<ref name="MunazVadivelu2016">Munaz, Ahmed; Vadivelu, Raja K.; St. John, James; Barton, Matthew; Kamble, Harshad; Nguyen, Nam-Trung (2016). ''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468217916300144?via%3Dihub Three-dimensional printing of biological matters]''. Journal of Science: Advanced Materials and Devices. 1 (1): 1–17. doi:10.1016/j.jsamd.2016.04.001. ISSN 2468-2179.</ref> or between 7th—8th century (which is more generally accepted).<ref name="Lin, Hang (2015).">Lin, Hang (2015). ''[https://search.proquest.com/openview/51390925701742a56606e2568ee654d0/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2029644 Coloring the Book in Ming-Qing China: Polychrome Woodblock Printing, ca. 1600-1900]''. Quarterly Journal of Chinese Studies; Xiamen Vol. 3, Iss. 3,  (Spring 2015): 33-49. Retrieved June 1st, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"During the seventh or eighth century, at the latest, the Chinese invented woodblock printing (xylography) to reproduce text from cutting written characters on wood blocks and printing them on papers. Although color printing from woodblocks may be dated at least to the eleventh century, when paper currency was being printed with multi blocks in black and red inks, the technique of polychrome printing reached its zenith only in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth century"''.
#Lin, Hang (2015). ''[https://search.proquest.com/openview/51390925701742a56606e2568ee654d0/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2029644 Coloring the Book in Ming-Qing China: Polychrome Woodblock Printing, ca. 1600-1900]''. Quarterly Journal of Chinese Studies; Xiamen Vol. 3, Iss. 3,  (Spring 2015): 33-49. Retrieved June 1st, 2019.</ref> However woodblock printing in China was only ''"fairly widespread"'' only in the early 9th century onwards.<ref name="Mun2013">un, Seung-Hwan (2013). ''[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17544750.2013.753497 Printing press without copyright: a historical analysis of printing and publishing in Song, China]''. Chinese Journal of Communication. 6 (1): 1–23. doi:10.1080/17544750.2013.753497. ISSN 1754-4750.</ref> However woodblock printing itself is far older; indeed the ''ajrakh'' (or ''ajrak'') technique is known to use printed woodblocks to replicate intricate patterns on fabrics.<ref name="ShindeWillis2014">Shinde, Vasant; Willis, Rick J. (2014). ''[https://www.ancient-asia-journal.com/articles/10.5334/aa.12317/ A New Type of Inscribed Copper Plate from Indus Valley (Harappan) Civilisation]''. Ancient Asia. 5. doi:10.5334/aa.12317. ISSN 2042-5937.</ref><ref name="Talpur2014">Parveen Talpur (14 August 2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yLNdDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT103&dq=ajrak+woodblock+printing&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjRhubA7sjiAhUTUhUIHXG_AZMQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=ajrak%20woodblock%20printing&f=false Moen jo Daro: Metropolis of the Indus Civilization (2600-1900 BCE)]''. BookBaby. p. 103. ISBN 978-1-63192-223-7.</ref> It is 3,500 years old, and was first invented in Sindh, Pakistan, between 2,300 BC and 1,750 BC.<ref name="Hann1992">Hann, M. A. (1992). ''[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00405009208631233 Symmetry in Regular Repeating Patterns: Case Studies from Various Cultural Settings]''. Journal of the Textile Institute. 83 (4): 579–590. doi:10.1080/00405009208631233. ISSN 0040-5000.</ref> Thus, Chinese claims of having invented woodblock printing appear very weak.
***Other sources say woodblock printing first appeared in China in the year 700,<ref name="Tsien2011">Tsuen-hsuin Tsien (2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0MTL6V5gxogC&pg=PA145&dq=%22Woodblock+printing%22+date+of+invention&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjp17L-5cjiAhV8WhUIHUjOAgsQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=%22Woodblock%20printing%22%20date%20of%20invention&f=false Collected Writings on Chinese Culture]''. Chinese University Press. p. 145. ISBN 978-962-996-422-1.</ref> whilst the ''"Oxford Handbook of Publishing"'' notes that Chinese woodblock printing dates only to the 7th century.<ref name="PhillipsBhaskar2019">Angus Phillips; Michael Bhaskar (23 April 2019). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ACKQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA329&dq=%22Woodblock+printing%22+date+of+invention&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjp17L-5cjiAhV8WhUIHUjOAgsQ6AEINTAC#v=onepage&q=%22Woodblock%20printing%22%20date%20of%20invention&f=false The Oxford Handbook of Publishing]''. Oxford University Press. p. 329. ISBN 978-0-19-879420-2.</ref> Given this information, it is likely China was not the first to invent it, but probably did popularise the technique.
**In 2014, a similar technique to woodblock printing was discovered in the Indus Valley dating to 4,000 and 4,600 years ago, but instead of using wood, they used copper plates to print designs. Specifically they used them to imprint ferric oxide ink on silk fabrics.<ref name="ShindeWillis2014"/> This was tested using copper plate designs that were only recently found at archeological sites and when tested, were found to have produced remarkable results when they were imprinted on tussah silk.<ref name="ShindeWillis2014"/> The Indus people thus developed the ''"world’s earliest known printing plates, and moreover, would have provided the world’s earliest printed works of art"''.<ref name="ShindeWillis2014"/>
</div>
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<!-------------MOBILE VERSION ---------------------->
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'''[[#Astronomy & Universe (4)|Astronomy]]''' •
'''[[#Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)|Agriculture, Food & Beverage]]''' •
'''[[#Biology (2)|Biology]]''' (''[[#Paleontology (10)|Paleontology]]'') •
'''[[#Chemistry (5)|Chemistry]]''' •
'''[[#Computing (4)|Computing]]''' (''[[#Video-gaming (1)|Video-gaming]] • [[#Board Games (1)|Board-games]]'') •
'''[[#Mathematics (3)|Mathematics]]''' •
'''[[#Medicines (1)|Medicine]]''' (''[[#Disease Eradication (1)|Disease Eradication]]'' • ''[[#Genetics & Disease (5)|Genetics & Disease]]'' • ''[[#Medical Instruments (6)|Instruments]]'') •
'''[[#Physics (5)|Physics]]''' •
'''Engineering''' (''[[#Naval Engineering (1)|Naval]]'' • ''[[#Mechanical Engineering (7)|Mechanical]]'' • ''[[#Handtool Engineering (3)|Handtool]]'' • ''[[#Textile Engineering (3)|Textile]]'' (''[[#Clothing (2)|Clothing]]'') • ''[[#Architectural Engineering (4)|Architectural]]'') •
'''[[#Sport & Recreation (2)|Sport & Recreation]]''' •
'''[[#Disputed (2)|Disputed]]''' •
[[#Further Reading|Further Reading]] •
[[#Sources|Sources]] •
(''[[#Footnotes|Footnotes]]'' • ''[[#References|References]]'' • ''[[#Acknowledgements|Acknowledgements]]'') •
[[#External Links|External Links]] •
'''''Total Inventions & Discoveries Listed: 77'''''
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[List of Inventions and Discoveries in Mechanics During the Islamic Golden Age]]'''''
[[File:Tussah silk indus valley ink.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Tussah silk print using an Indus Valley copper plate. White is Tussah silk.</div>]]
*'''Printing, Woodblock Printing''' and '''Printing Plates'''—There is some confusion over the perceptions of who invented printing. Printing itself was not invented in China but is much older, and several civilisations lay claim to it's first invention. To illustrate, the first printing devices are said to have been stencils (the oldest prints to have been found were discovered in a cave in Indonesia, dating to back to at least 40,000 years<ref name="Pallab Ghosh (8th October 2014).">Pallab Ghosh (8th October 2014). ''[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-29415716 Cave paintings change ideas about the origin of art]''. BBC News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190601173518/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-29415716 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved June 1st, 2019.</ref>) and the next oldest are cylinder seals from the Middle-east which were first used for imprinting on rocky materials in 3,500 BC (over 5,500 years ago).<ref name="AnthropologyHansen1998">Donald P. Hansen; Holly Pittman (1998). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h8j76olVKloC&pg=PA75&dq=cylinder+seals+invented+3500+bC&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjjwsDM7MjiAhViUBUIHcdXC4wQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=cylinder%20seals%20invented%203500%20bC&f=false Treasures from the Royal Tombs of Ur]''. University of Pennsylvania. Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. UPenn Museum of Archaeology. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-924171-55-0.</ref> Neither of these techniques is truly printing. 
**China claims to have invented woodblock printing in the year 200 (over 1,800 years ago),<ref name="MunazVadivelu2016">Munaz, Ahmed; Vadivelu, Raja K.; St. John, James; Barton, Matthew; Kamble, Harshad; Nguyen, Nam-Trung (2016). ''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468217916300144?via%3Dihub Three-dimensional printing of biological matters]''. Journal of Science: Advanced Materials and Devices. 1 (1): 1–17. doi:10.1016/j.jsamd.2016.04.001. ISSN 2468-2179.</ref> or between 7th—8th century (which is more generally accepted).<ref name="Lin, Hang (2015).">Lin, Hang (2015). ''[https://search.proquest.com/openview/51390925701742a56606e2568ee654d0/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2029644 Coloring the Book in Ming-Qing China: Polychrome Woodblock Printing, ca. 1600-1900]''. Quarterly Journal of Chinese Studies; Xiamen Vol. 3, Iss. 3,  (Spring 2015): 33-49. Retrieved June 1st, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"During the seventh or eighth century, at the latest, the Chinese invented woodblock printing (xylography) to reproduce text from cutting written characters on wood blocks and printing them on papers. Although color printing from woodblocks may be dated at least to the eleventh century, when paper currency was being printed with multi blocks in black and red inks, the technique of polychrome printing reached its zenith only in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth century"''.
#Lin, Hang (2015). ''[https://search.proquest.com/openview/51390925701742a56606e2568ee654d0/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2029644 Coloring the Book in Ming-Qing China: Polychrome Woodblock Printing, ca. 1600-1900]''. Quarterly Journal of Chinese Studies; Xiamen Vol. 3, Iss. 3,  (Spring 2015): 33-49. Retrieved June 1st, 2019.</ref> However woodblock printing in China was only ''"fairly widespread"'' only in the early 9th century onwards.<ref name="Mun2013">un, Seung-Hwan (2013). ''[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17544750.2013.753497 Printing press without copyright: a historical analysis of printing and publishing in Song, China]''. Chinese Journal of Communication. 6 (1): 1–23. doi:10.1080/17544750.2013.753497. ISSN 1754-4750.</ref> However woodblock printing itself is far older; indeed the ''ajrakh'' (or ''ajrak'') technique is known to use printed woodblocks to replicate intricate patterns on fabrics.<ref name="ShindeWillis2014">Shinde, Vasant; Willis, Rick J. (2014). ''[https://www.ancient-asia-journal.com/articles/10.5334/aa.12317/ A New Type of Inscribed Copper Plate from Indus Valley (Harappan) Civilisation]''. Ancient Asia. 5. doi:10.5334/aa.12317. ISSN 2042-5937.</ref><ref name="Talpur2014">Parveen Talpur (14 August 2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yLNdDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT103&dq=ajrak+woodblock+printing&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjRhubA7sjiAhUTUhUIHXG_AZMQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=ajrak%20woodblock%20printing&f=false Moen jo Daro: Metropolis of the Indus Civilization (2600-1900 BCE)]''. BookBaby. p. 103. ISBN 978-1-63192-223-7.</ref> It is 3,500 years old, and was first invented in Sindh, Pakistan, between 2,300 BC and 1,750 BC.<ref name="Hann1992">Hann, M. A. (1992). ''[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00405009208631233 Symmetry in Regular Repeating Patterns: Case Studies from Various Cultural Settings]''. Journal of the Textile Institute. 83 (4): 579–590. doi:10.1080/00405009208631233. ISSN 0040-5000.</ref> Thus, Chinese claims of having invented woodblock printing appear very weak.
***Other sources say woodblock printing first appeared in China in the year 700,<ref name="Tsien2011">Tsuen-hsuin Tsien (2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0MTL6V5gxogC&pg=PA145&dq=%22Woodblock+printing%22+date+of+invention&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjp17L-5cjiAhV8WhUIHUjOAgsQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=%22Woodblock%20printing%22%20date%20of%20invention&f=false Collected Writings on Chinese Culture]''. Chinese University Press. p. 145. ISBN 978-962-996-422-1.</ref> whilst the ''"Oxford Handbook of Publishing"'' notes that Chinese woodblock printing dates only to the 7th century.<ref name="PhillipsBhaskar2019">Angus Phillips; Michael Bhaskar (23 April 2019). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ACKQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA329&dq=%22Woodblock+printing%22+date+of+invention&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjp17L-5cjiAhV8WhUIHUjOAgsQ6AEINTAC#v=onepage&q=%22Woodblock%20printing%22%20date%20of%20invention&f=false The Oxford Handbook of Publishing]''. Oxford University Press. p. 329. ISBN 978-0-19-879420-2.</ref> Given this information, it is likely China was not the first to invent it, but probably did popularise the technique.
**In 2014, a similar technique to woodblock printing was discovered in the Indus Valley dating to 4,000 and 4,600 years ago, but instead of using wood, they used copper plates to print designs. Specifically they used them to imprint ferric oxide ink on silk fabrics.<ref name="ShindeWillis2014"/> This was tested using copper plate designs that were only recently found at archeological sites and when tested, were found to have produced remarkable results when they were imprinted on tussah silk.<ref name="ShindeWillis2014"/> The Indus people thus developed the ''"world’s earliest known printing plates, and moreover, would have provided the world’s earliest printed works of art"''.<ref name="ShindeWillis2014"/>
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===Clothing (2)===
<!-------------DESKTOP VERSION ---------------------->
<div id="nomobile">
<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">
::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete.''
[[File:216.jpg|thumb|left|120px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:100%;">Peshwari Sandles (female; by ''Mochari'').</div>]]
[[File:IMG 2364 1 grande-600x429.jpg|thumb|left|120px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:100%;">Kaptaan Peshwari Sandles (male).</div>]]
::::::*'''Peshawari Sandals'''—A unique type sandal originating from Peshawar, Punjab, known as the ''Peshawar Sandal'' or the '''''Peshawar Chappal''''' was first invented in Pakistan in the early-modern period (at least over 100 years ago, whilst others are more specific saying the 19th century<ref name="Support Blogger (May 1st, 2017)."/>). They are made by skilled cordwainers (shoemakers who work primarily with leather). There are many different designs of the sandal; however the most famous are the ''Charsadda'', ''Kaptaan'', ''Khyber'', ''Afridi'', ''Norozi'' and ''Lahori'' sandals.<ref name="Support Blogger (May 1st, 2017).">Support Blogger (May 1st, 2017). ''[http://subhay.com/All-You-Need-to-Know-About-Peshawari-Chappal All You Need to Know About Peshawari Chappal - Legacy Of Pushtoons]''. Subhay. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20181130180923/http://subhay.com/All-You-Need-to-Know-About-Peshawari-Chappal WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref> The oldest market that makes Peshwari sandals can be found at ''Nazimabad No. 2''.<ref name="Kashif Hussain (May 28th, 2019).">Kashif Hussain (May 28th, 2019). ''[https://tribune.com.pk/story/1981626/1-peshawari-balochi-footwear-trending-eid/ Peshawari and Balochi footwear trending this Eid]''. Tribune. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191017005359/https://tribune.com.pk/story/1981626/1-peshawari-balochi-footwear-trending-eid/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 17th, 2019.</ref> It was founded 150 years ago (c. 1869), and may possibly be older, containing over 70 shops selling chappals alone.<ref name="Kashif Hussain (May 28th, 2019)."/> They are mostly worn with traditional Pakistani outfits, such as the ''Shalwar Kameez''.<ref name="Haroon Siraj (November 13th, 2015).">Haroon Siraj (November 13th, 2015). ''[https://nation.com.pk/13-Nov-2015/peshawari-chappal-becomes-fashion-statement Peshawari Chappal becomes fashion statement]''. The Nation. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016222407/https://nation.com.pk/13-Nov-2015/peshawari-chappal-becomes-fashion-statement WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref>
::::::**The chappals are exported to places such as the UK, US, Canada and Gulf States.<ref name="Sher Alam Shinwari (June 17th, 2017)."/> They are also vastly popular in India and France; countries where the Pakistani diaspora has very little presence.<ref name="Annabel Symington (March 11th, 2014)."/> They can be bought in the West from authentic indigenous international brands such as ''Markhor'' (previously known as ''Hometown'' or ''Hometown Shoes''<ref name="Momina Sibtain (June 19th, 2014).">Momina Sibtain (June 19th, 2014). ''[https://tribune.com.pk/story/724095/from-a-local-shoemaker-to-international-retailer/ From a local shoemaker to international retailer]''. Tribune. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20170107011601/http://tribune.com.pk/story/724095/from-a-local-shoemaker-to-international-retailer/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 17th, 2019.</ref>) who also export them to 17 different countries.<ref name="Annabel Symington (March 11th, 2014)."/><ref name="Momina Sibtain (June 19th, 2014)."/> Fans of the Peshawari Chappal have even included one of the chief executives of Google.<ref name="Momina Sibtain (June 19th, 2014)."/> Interestingly Google ended up partnering with ''Markhor'' and the Punjab Government to help expand the business.<ref name="Momina Sibtain (June 19th, 2014)."/>
::::::***In 2014, Paul Smith (1946—Present<ref name="Bibby Sowray (1st November 2011).">Bibby Sowray (1st November 2011). ''[https://www.vogue.co.uk/article/paul-smith Paul Smith]''. Vogue. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20180407045646/https://www.vogue.co.uk/article/paul-smith WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 17th, 2019.</ref>) produced a ''"knock-off"'' of the Sandal in the UK,<ref name="Andrea Crossan (March 12th, 2014).">Andrea Crossan (March 12th, 2014). ''[https://www.pri.org/stories/2014-03-12/british-designer-paul-smiths-sandal-595-knockoff Is British designer Paul Smith's sandal a $595 knockoff?]''. Public Radio International. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016223315/https://www.pri.org/stories/2014-03-12/british-designer-paul-smiths-sandal-595-knockoff WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref> that drew significant outrage,<ref name="SterlacciArbuckle2017">Francesca Sterlacci; Joanne Arbuckle (30 June 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jycnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA444&dq=Peshawari+Chappal+invented&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj8gLzX4KHlAhWOfFAKHQK9DugQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=Peshawari%20Chappal%20invented&f=false Historical Dictionary of the Fashion Industry]''. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 444. ISBN 978-1-4422-3909-8.</ref> as he did not any give credit to Pakistan (and hence inspiration).<ref name="Madeeha Syed (March 10th, 2014).">Madeeha Syed (March 10th, 2014). ''[https://www.dawn.com/news/1092257 A chappal of two cities: The £300 Paul Smith surprise]''. Dawn. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016223026/https://www.dawn.com/news/1092257 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref> It was widely seen as an obvious attempt to culturally appropriate Pakistani culture as Western culture.<ref name="Bina Shah (March 10th, 2014).">Bina Shah (March 10th, 2014). ''[https://blogs.tribune.com.pk/story/21357/paul-smith-shoes-and-cultural-appropriation/ Paul Smith shoes and cultural appropriation]''. The Express Tribune Blogs. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016223144/https://blogs.tribune.com.pk/story/21357/paul-smith-shoes-and-cultural-appropriation/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref> He bizarrely called the sandals ''"Robert Sandals"''<ref name="Yusra Hussain (June 7th, 2017).">Yusra Hussain (June 7th, 2017). ''[https://www.youlinmagazine.com/article/jahangirpura-walking-a-mile-in-peshawari-chappal/ODYy Jahangirpura: Walking a Mile in Peshawari Chappal]''. Youlin Magazine. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016220511/https://www.youlinmagazine.com/article/jahangirpura-walking-a-mile-in-peshawari-chappal/ODYy WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Tariq Zaman (November 13th, 2014).">Tariq Zaman (November 13th, 2014). ''[https://www.sfu.ca/ipinch/outputs/blog/appropriation-month-one-design-two-labels-peshawari-chappal-vs-robert-sandal/ Appropriation (?) of the Month: One Design with Two Labels — Peshawari Chappal vs. Robert Sandal]''. Intellectual Property Issues in Cultural Heritage (IPinCH). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016221937/https://www.sfu.ca/ipinch/outputs/blog/appropriation-month-one-design-two-labels-peshawari-chappal-vs-robert-sandal/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref>—and priced them at £300 ($595<ref name="Annabel Symington (March 11th, 2014).">Annabel Symington (March 11th, 2014). ''[https://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2014/03/11/how-paul-smith-sandals-peeved-pakistan/ How Paul Smith Sandals Peeved Pakistan]''. Wall Street Journal (Blogs). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016222720/https://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2014/03/11/how-paul-smith-sandals-peeved-pakistan/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref>). The sandals are sold in Pakistan for the price of about $5 (or £15<ref name="Naomi Larsson (17th June 2015).">Naomi Larsson (17th June 2015). ''[https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2015/jun/17/mexican-mixe-blouse-isabel-marant Inspiration or plagiarism? Mexicans seek reparations for French designer’s look-alike blouse]''. The Guardian. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191017010123/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2015/jun/17/mexican-mixe-blouse-isabel-marant WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 17th, 2019.</ref>).<ref name="Andrea Crossan (March 12th, 2014)."/> Interestingly craftmakers in Pakistan were not so much outraged at the price than at the actual design (and lack of credit); it was from 1960s or 1970s.<ref name="Andrea Crossan (March 12th, 2014)."/>
::::::***In 2019, another Western designer (Christian Louboutin (1963—Present<ref name="Hadley Freeman (19th March 2010).">Hadley Freeman (19th March 2010). ''[https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2010/mar/19/christian-louboutin-high-heels Christian Louboutin: How killer heels conquered fashion]''. The Guardian. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191017015400/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2010/mar/19/christian-louboutin-high-heels WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 17th, 2019.</ref>), a Frenchman, who previously toured Pakistan in 2017 for a holiday) decided to create and sell sandals inspired by the Peshawari Chappal (priced at £380), but, unlike Smith, actually gave credit to Pakistan for it's inspiration upon their release.<ref name="Eminraja (March 25th, 2019).">Eminraja (March 25th, 2019). ''[https://blog.siasat.pk/famous-french-designer-christian-louboutin-launches-peshawari-chappal-names-it-imran-sandals/ Famous French Designer Christian Louboutin Launches Peshawari Chappal – Names It ‘Imran Sandals’]''. Siasat Blogs. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016222146/https://blog.siasat.pk/famous-french-designer-christian-louboutin-launches-peshawari-chappal-names-it-imran-sandals/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref> Specifically, he named the sandals after it's Pakistani designer, Imran Qureshi.<ref name="Eminraja (March 25th, 2019)."/><ref name="AFP (April 23rd, 2019).">AFP (April 23rd, 2019). ''[http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/pride-and-pique-as-louboutin-takes-pakistan-chappal-global-142864 Pride and pique as Louboutin takes Pakistan chappal global]''. Hurriyet Daily News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016222536/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/pride-and-pique-as-louboutin-takes-pakistan-chappal-global-142864 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref> The Pakistani website, ''Siasat Blogs'', called the sandals ''"colourful, glitzy and super eye-catchy"'' and said they were ''"a perfect blend of contemporary cultural design and modern vibe"''.<ref name="Eminraja (March 25th, 2019)."/>
::::::**The craft is currently in danger of dying out, primarily because of the ease of availability of cheap, poor quality<ref name="Mehek Saeed (July 8th, 2015).">Mehek Saeed (July 8th, 2015). ''[https://tribune.com.pk/story/917122/head-over-heels-for-peshawaris/ Head over heels for Peshawaris]''. The Tribune. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20160319095318/https://tribune.com.pk/story/917122/head-over-heels-for-peshawaris/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref> Chinese (and Thai<ref name="Mehek Saeed (July 8th, 2015)."/>) open flat sandals (by contrast, Peshawari sandals are higher quality, handmade, and more expensive to produce).<ref name="tribunepeshawar">''[https://tribune.com.pk/story/65279/from-peshawar-with-love/ From Peshawar with love]''. October 20th, 2010. Tribune. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20170708080042/https://tribune.com.pk/story/65279/from-peshawar-with-love/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref> One craftmaker noted how during the Eid period he would be able to sell 1,500 pairs, but it dropped to 600—800.<ref name="tribunepeshawar"/> Young people in particular find them difficult to purchase because they don't match with cheap modern outfits, and the fact that ''"young people are not fascinated by traditional things"''.<ref name="Sher Alam Shinwari (June 17th, 2017)."/> Some young people however have recognised the ''"need to safeguard the art"''.<ref name="Sher Alam Shinwari (June 17th, 2017)."/>
::::::**They vary in price between Rs. 300—800 rupees.<ref name="tribunepeshawar"/> Others say Rs. 800—1,000 rupees.<ref name="Sher Alam Shinwari (June 17th, 2017)."/> However, more skilled cordwainers are able to produce even higher quality versions of the sandals, known as ''"Kaptaan Sandals"'' (or ''"Kaptaan Chappal"''), which are sold for Rs. 10,000 rupees (others say Rs. 5,000—10,000 rupees<ref name="APP (June 29th, 2016)."/>) each (and hence those can afford them are primarily the well-off, parliamentarians and government officials).<ref name="Sher Alam Shinwari (June 17th, 2017).">Sher Alam Shinwari (June 17th, 2017). ''[https://www.dawn.com/news/1340019 Keeping the tradition of Peshawari chappal alive]''. Dawn. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20171122151853/https://www.dawn.com/news/1340019 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref> It is also sometimes spelled as ''"Captain's Chappal"''.<ref name="APP (June 29th, 2016).">APP (June 29th, 2016). ''[https://dailytimes.com.pk/72965/peshawari-chappal-adds-colours-to-eid-celebrations/ Peshawari chappal adds colours to Eid celebrations]''. Daily Times. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016222845/https://dailytimes.com.pk/72965/peshawari-chappal-adds-colours-to-eid-celebrations/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref> They're also expensive because last very long (10 years) without wearing out (making them ''"perfect for...rugged terrain"'').<ref name="Yusra Hussain (June 7th, 2017)."/>

*'''Windy-City Hat'''—Sarfaraz K. Niazi (1949—Present) is a Pakistani-American who was the first to invent a strapless hat that was incapable of being blown away by the wind known as the windy-city hat.<ref name="Sarfaraz K. Niazi (April 21st, 2012).">Sarfaraz K. Niazi (April 21st, 2012). ''[https://patents.google.com/patent/US20120198600A1/en]''. Google Patents. Patent No. US20120198600A1. Application: US13/452,837. 
 ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190525232233/https://patents.google.com/patent/US20120198600A1/en WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 26th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Kate MacArthur (June 17th, 2014).">Kate MacArthur (June 17th, 2014). ''[http://bluesky.chicagotribune.com/originals/chi-sarfaraz-niazi-biosimilars-bsi-20140616,0,0.story How an inventor's trying to cut the cost of making biological drugs]''. Chicago Tribune. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190525233608/http://bluesky.chicagotribune.com/originals/chi-sarfaraz-niazi-biosimilars-bsi-20140616,0,0.story WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 26th, 2019.</ref> He registered his invention with the US patent office on April 21st, 2012.<ref name="Sarfaraz K. Niazi (April 21st, 2012)."/> The invention consists of a brim-vented hat, made up of holes around the crown's rim; which themselves are surrounded by a thin film of porous material for air to pass through that prevents the hat from being lifted by strong winds.<ref name="Sarfaraz K. Niazi (April 21st, 2012)."/> 
**As of 2014, he had at least seventy patients to his name.<ref name="Kate MacArthur (June 17th, 2014)."/> He serves as a professor for the University of Illinois, Chicago.<ref name="Sarfaraz K. Niazi (April 21st, 2012)."/>
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'''[[#Astronomy & Universe (4)|Astronomy]]''' •
'''[[#Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)|Agriculture, Food & Beverage]]''' •
'''[[#Biology (2)|Biology]]''' (''[[#Paleontology (10)|Paleontology]]'') •
'''[[#Chemistry (5)|Chemistry]]''' •
'''[[#Computing (4)|Computing]]''' (''[[#Video-gaming (1)|Video-gaming]] • [[#Board Games (1)|Board-games]]'') •
'''[[#Mathematics (3)|Mathematics]]''' •
'''[[#Medicines (1)|Medicine]]''' (''[[#Disease Eradication (1)|Disease Eradication]]'' • ''[[#Genetics & Disease (5)|Genetics & Disease]]'' • ''[[#Medical Instruments (6)|Instruments]]'') •
'''[[#Physics (5)|Physics]]''' •
'''Engineering''' (''[[#Naval Engineering (1)|Naval]]'' • ''[[#Mechanical Engineering (7)|Mechanical]]'' • ''[[#Handtool Engineering (3)|Handtool]]'' • ''[[#Textile Engineering (3)|Textile]]'' (''[[#Clothing (2)|Clothing]]'') • ''[[#Architectural Engineering (4)|Architectural]]'') •
'''[[#Sport & Recreation (2)|Sport & Recreation]]''' •
'''[[#Disputed (2)|Disputed]]''' •
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(''[[#Footnotes|Footnotes]]'' • ''[[#References|References]]'' • ''[[#Acknowledgements|Acknowledgements]]'') •
[[#External Links|External Links]] •
'''''Total Inventions & Discoveries Listed: 77'''''
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete.''
[[File:216.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:100%;">Peshwari Sandles (female; by ''Mochari'').</div>]]
[[File:IMG 2364 1 grande-600x429.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:100%;">Kaptaan Peshwari Sandles (male).</div>]]
*'''Peshawari Sandals'''—A unique type sandal originating from Peshawar, Punjab, known as the ''Peshawar Sandal'' or the '''''Peshawar Chappal''''' was first invented in Pakistan in the early-modern period (at least over 100 years ago, whilst others are more specific saying the 19th century<ref name="Support Blogger (May 1st, 2017)."/>). They are made by skilled cordwainers (shoemakers who work primarily with leather). There are many different designs of the sandal; however the most famous are the ''Charsadda'', ''Kaptaan'', ''Khyber'', ''Afridi'', ''Norozi'' and ''Lahori'' sandals.<ref name="Support Blogger (May 1st, 2017).">Support Blogger (May 1st, 2017). ''[http://subhay.com/All-You-Need-to-Know-About-Peshawari-Chappal All You Need to Know About Peshawari Chappal - Legacy Of Pushtoons]''. Subhay. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20181130180923/http://subhay.com/All-You-Need-to-Know-About-Peshawari-Chappal WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref> The oldest market that makes Peshwari sandals can be found at ''Nazimabad No. 2''.<ref name="Kashif Hussain (May 28th, 2019).">Kashif Hussain (May 28th, 2019). ''[https://tribune.com.pk/story/1981626/1-peshawari-balochi-footwear-trending-eid/ Peshawari and Balochi footwear trending this Eid]''. Tribune. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191017005359/https://tribune.com.pk/story/1981626/1-peshawari-balochi-footwear-trending-eid/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 17th, 2019.</ref> It was founded 150 years ago (c. 1869), and may possibly be older, containing over 70 shops selling chappals alone.<ref name="Kashif Hussain (May 28th, 2019)."/> They are mostly worn with traditional Pakistani outfits, such as the ''Shalwar Kameez''.<ref name="Haroon Siraj (November 13th, 2015).">Haroon Siraj (November 13th, 2015). ''[https://nation.com.pk/13-Nov-2015/peshawari-chappal-becomes-fashion-statement Peshawari Chappal becomes fashion statement]''. The Nation. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016222407/https://nation.com.pk/13-Nov-2015/peshawari-chappal-becomes-fashion-statement WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref>
**The chappals are exported to places such as the UK, US, Canada and Gulf States.<ref name="Sher Alam Shinwari (June 17th, 2017)."/> They are also vastly popular in India and France; countries where the Pakistani diaspora has very little presence.<ref name="Annabel Symington (March 11th, 2014)."/> They can be bought in the West from authentic indigenous international brands such as ''Markhor'' (previously known as ''Hometown'' or ''Hometown Shoes''<ref name="Momina Sibtain (June 19th, 2014).">Momina Sibtain (June 19th, 2014). ''[https://tribune.com.pk/story/724095/from-a-local-shoemaker-to-international-retailer/ From a local shoemaker to international retailer]''. Tribune. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20170107011601/http://tribune.com.pk/story/724095/from-a-local-shoemaker-to-international-retailer/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 17th, 2019.</ref>) who also export them to 17 different countries.<ref name="Annabel Symington (March 11th, 2014)."/><ref name="Momina Sibtain (June 19th, 2014)."/> Fans of the Peshawari Chappal have even included one of the chief executives of Google.<ref name="Momina Sibtain (June 19th, 2014)."/> Interestingly Google ended up partnering with ''Markhor'' and the Punjab Government to help expand the business.<ref name="Momina Sibtain (June 19th, 2014)."/>
***In 2014, Paul Smith (1946—Present<ref name="Bibby Sowray (1st November 2011).">Bibby Sowray (1st November 2011). ''[https://www.vogue.co.uk/article/paul-smith Paul Smith]''. Vogue. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20180407045646/https://www.vogue.co.uk/article/paul-smith WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 17th, 2019.</ref>) produced a ''"knock-off"'' of the Sandal in the UK,<ref name="Andrea Crossan (March 12th, 2014).">Andrea Crossan (March 12th, 2014). ''[https://www.pri.org/stories/2014-03-12/british-designer-paul-smiths-sandal-595-knockoff Is British designer Paul Smith's sandal a $595 knockoff?]''. Public Radio International. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016223315/https://www.pri.org/stories/2014-03-12/british-designer-paul-smiths-sandal-595-knockoff WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref> that drew significant outrage,<ref name="SterlacciArbuckle2017">Francesca Sterlacci; Joanne Arbuckle (30 June 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jycnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA444&dq=Peshawari+Chappal+invented&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj8gLzX4KHlAhWOfFAKHQK9DugQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=Peshawari%20Chappal%20invented&f=false Historical Dictionary of the Fashion Industry]''. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 444. ISBN 978-1-4422-3909-8.</ref> as he did not any give credit to Pakistan (and hence inspiration).<ref name="Madeeha Syed (March 10th, 2014).">Madeeha Syed (March 10th, 2014). ''[https://www.dawn.com/news/1092257 A chappal of two cities: The £300 Paul Smith surprise]''. Dawn. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016223026/https://www.dawn.com/news/1092257 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref> It was widely seen as an obvious attempt to culturally appropriate Pakistani culture as Western culture.<ref name="Bina Shah (March 10th, 2014).">Bina Shah (March 10th, 2014). ''[https://blogs.tribune.com.pk/story/21357/paul-smith-shoes-and-cultural-appropriation/ Paul Smith shoes and cultural appropriation]''. The Express Tribune Blogs. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016223144/https://blogs.tribune.com.pk/story/21357/paul-smith-shoes-and-cultural-appropriation/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref> He bizarrely called the sandals ''"Robert Sandals"''<ref name="Yusra Hussain (June 7th, 2017).">Yusra Hussain (June 7th, 2017). ''[https://www.youlinmagazine.com/article/jahangirpura-walking-a-mile-in-peshawari-chappal/ODYy Jahangirpura: Walking a Mile in Peshawari Chappal]''. Youlin Magazine. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016220511/https://www.youlinmagazine.com/article/jahangirpura-walking-a-mile-in-peshawari-chappal/ODYy WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Tariq Zaman (November 13th, 2014).">Tariq Zaman (November 13th, 2014). ''[https://www.sfu.ca/ipinch/outputs/blog/appropriation-month-one-design-two-labels-peshawari-chappal-vs-robert-sandal/ Appropriation (?) of the Month: One Design with Two Labels — Peshawari Chappal vs. Robert Sandal]''. Intellectual Property Issues in Cultural Heritage (IPinCH). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016221937/https://www.sfu.ca/ipinch/outputs/blog/appropriation-month-one-design-two-labels-peshawari-chappal-vs-robert-sandal/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref>—and priced them at £300 ($595<ref name="Annabel Symington (March 11th, 2014).">Annabel Symington (March 11th, 2014). ''[https://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2014/03/11/how-paul-smith-sandals-peeved-pakistan/ How Paul Smith Sandals Peeved Pakistan]''. Wall Street Journal (Blogs). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016222720/https://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2014/03/11/how-paul-smith-sandals-peeved-pakistan/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref>). The sandals are sold in Pakistan for the price of about $5 (or £15<ref name="Naomi Larsson (17th June 2015).">Naomi Larsson (17th June 2015). ''[https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2015/jun/17/mexican-mixe-blouse-isabel-marant Inspiration or plagiarism? Mexicans seek reparations for French designer’s look-alike blouse]''. The Guardian. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191017010123/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2015/jun/17/mexican-mixe-blouse-isabel-marant WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 17th, 2019.</ref>).<ref name="Andrea Crossan (March 12th, 2014)."/> Interestingly craftmakers in Pakistan were not so much outraged at the price than at the actual design (and lack of credit); it was from 1960s or 1970s.<ref name="Andrea Crossan (March 12th, 2014)."/>
***In 2019, another Western designer (Christian Louboutin (1963—Present<ref name="Hadley Freeman (19th March 2010).">Hadley Freeman (19th March 2010). ''[https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2010/mar/19/christian-louboutin-high-heels Christian Louboutin: How killer heels conquered fashion]''. The Guardian. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191017015400/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2010/mar/19/christian-louboutin-high-heels WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 17th, 2019.</ref>), a Frenchman, who previously toured Pakistan in 2017 for a holiday) decided to create and sell sandals inspired by the Peshawari Chappal (priced at £380), but, unlike Smith, actually gave credit to Pakistan for it's inspiration upon their release.<ref name="Eminraja (March 25th, 2019).">Eminraja (March 25th, 2019). ''[https://blog.siasat.pk/famous-french-designer-christian-louboutin-launches-peshawari-chappal-names-it-imran-sandals/ Famous French Designer Christian Louboutin Launches Peshawari Chappal – Names It ‘Imran Sandals’]''. Siasat Blogs. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016222146/https://blog.siasat.pk/famous-french-designer-christian-louboutin-launches-peshawari-chappal-names-it-imran-sandals/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref> Specifically, he named the sandals after it's Pakistani designer, Imran Qureshi.<ref name="Eminraja (March 25th, 2019)."/><ref name="AFP (April 23rd, 2019).">AFP (April 23rd, 2019). ''[http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/pride-and-pique-as-louboutin-takes-pakistan-chappal-global-142864 Pride and pique as Louboutin takes Pakistan chappal global]''. Hurriyet Daily News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016222536/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/pride-and-pique-as-louboutin-takes-pakistan-chappal-global-142864 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref> The Pakistani website, ''Siasat Blogs'', called the sandals ''"colourful, glitzy and super eye-catchy"'' and said they were ''"a perfect blend of contemporary cultural design and modern vibe"''.<ref name="Eminraja (March 25th, 2019)."/>
**The craft is currently in danger of dying out, primarily because of the ease of availability of cheap, poor quality<ref name="Mehek Saeed (July 8th, 2015).">Mehek Saeed (July 8th, 2015). ''[https://tribune.com.pk/story/917122/head-over-heels-for-peshawaris/ Head over heels for Peshawaris]''. The Tribune. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20160319095318/https://tribune.com.pk/story/917122/head-over-heels-for-peshawaris/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref> Chinese (and Thai<ref name="Mehek Saeed (July 8th, 2015)."/>) open flat sandals (by contrast, Peshawari sandals are higher quality, handmade, and more expensive to produce).<ref name="tribunepeshawar">''[https://tribune.com.pk/story/65279/from-peshawar-with-love/ From Peshawar with love]''. October 20th, 2010. Tribune. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20170708080042/https://tribune.com.pk/story/65279/from-peshawar-with-love/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref> One craftmaker noted how during the Eid period he would be able to sell 1,500 pairs, but it dropped to 600—800.<ref name="tribunepeshawar"/> Young people in particular find them difficult to purchase because they don't match with cheap modern outfits, and the fact that ''"young people are not fascinated by traditional things"''.<ref name="Sher Alam Shinwari (June 17th, 2017)."/> Some young people however have recognised the ''"need to safeguard the art"''.<ref name="Sher Alam Shinwari (June 17th, 2017)."/>
**They vary in price between Rs. 300—800 rupees.<ref name="tribunepeshawar"/> Others say Rs. 800—1,000 rupees.<ref name="Sher Alam Shinwari (June 17th, 2017)."/> However, more skilled cordwainers are able to produce even higher quality versions of the sandals, known as ''"Kaptaan Sandals"'' (or ''"Kaptaan Chappal"''), which are sold for Rs. 10,000 rupees (others say Rs. 5,000—10,000 rupees<ref name="APP (June 29th, 2016)."/>) each (and hence those can afford them are primarily the well-off, parliamentarians and government officials).<ref name="Sher Alam Shinwari (June 17th, 2017).">Sher Alam Shinwari (June 17th, 2017). ''[https://www.dawn.com/news/1340019 Keeping the tradition of Peshawari chappal alive]''. Dawn. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20171122151853/https://www.dawn.com/news/1340019 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref> It is also sometimes spelled as ''"Captain's Chappal"''.<ref name="APP (June 29th, 2016).">APP (June 29th, 2016). ''[https://dailytimes.com.pk/72965/peshawari-chappal-adds-colours-to-eid-celebrations/ Peshawari chappal adds colours to Eid celebrations]''. Daily Times. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191016222845/https://dailytimes.com.pk/72965/peshawari-chappal-adds-colours-to-eid-celebrations/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 16th, 2019.</ref> They're also expensive because last very long (10 years) without wearing out (making them ''"perfect for...rugged terrain"'').<ref name="Yusra Hussain (June 7th, 2017)."/>

*'''Windy-City Hat'''—Sarfaraz K. Niazi (1949—Present) is a Pakistani-American who was the first to invent a strapless hat that was incapable of being blown away by the wind known as the windy-city hat.<ref name="Sarfaraz K. Niazi (April 21st, 2012).">Sarfaraz K. Niazi (April 21st, 2012). ''[https://patents.google.com/patent/US20120198600A1/en]''. Google Patents. Patent No. US20120198600A1. Application: US13/452,837. 
 ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190525232233/https://patents.google.com/patent/US20120198600A1/en WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 26th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Kate MacArthur (June 17th, 2014).">Kate MacArthur (June 17th, 2014). ''[http://bluesky.chicagotribune.com/originals/chi-sarfaraz-niazi-biosimilars-bsi-20140616,0,0.story How an inventor's trying to cut the cost of making biological drugs]''. Chicago Tribune. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190525233608/http://bluesky.chicagotribune.com/originals/chi-sarfaraz-niazi-biosimilars-bsi-20140616,0,0.story WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 26th, 2019.</ref> He registered his invention with the US patent office on April 21st, 2012.<ref name="Sarfaraz K. Niazi (April 21st, 2012)."/> The invention consists of a brim-vented hat, made up of holes around the crown's rim; which themselves are surrounded by a thin film of porous material for air to pass through that prevents the hat from being lifted by strong winds.<ref name="Sarfaraz K. Niazi (April 21st, 2012)."/> 
**As of 2014, he had at least seventy patients to his name.<ref name="Kate MacArthur (June 17th, 2014)."/> He serves as a professor for the University of Illinois, Chicago.<ref name="Sarfaraz K. Niazi (April 21st, 2012)."/>
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===Architectural Engineering (4)===
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[List of Inventions and Discoveries in Mechanics During the Islamic Golden Age]]'''''
[[File:Stadium.jpg|thumb|right|110px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:70%;">Stadiums were invented over 4,000 years ago in Pakistan.</div>]]
*'''Stadium'''—The Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 7000 BC—c. 1300 BC) was the first to invent the concept of stadiums (which were very much like modern stadiums<ref name="Mobina Shaheen, R.S. Bhisht (September 1st, 2002).">Mobina Shaheen, R.S. Bhisht (September 1st, 2002). ''[http://www.anistor.gr/english/enback/p023.htm Dholavira and the Harappan Stadia in India]''. Journal of History, Archaeology, Art History (ANISTORITON). Issue No. P023. ISSN 1108-4081. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190526124905/http://www.anistor.gr/english/enback/p023.htm WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 26th, 2019.</ref>). Indeed the earliest stadium known in history is to be found in Dholavira, Gujarat, India, which was once a part of ancient Pakistan (where a famous 10 lettered signboard was also discovered<ref name="Possehl2002"/>).<ref>''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lzBuAAAAMAAJ&q=The+earliest+and+the+largest+stadium+found+so+far+perhaps+accredited+to+the+Harappans&dq=The+earliest+and+the+largest+stadium+found+so+far+perhaps+accredited+to+the+Harappans&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiYlueIlrniAhVhtHEKHa08DGQQ6AEIKjAA Purātattva]''. Issue No. 29. Journal of the Indian Archaeological Society. Indian Archaeological Society. University of Michigan. Digitized September 2nd, 2008. 1999. p. 32.</ref> This, along with several other structures provides concrete evidence that public activities were carried out in this civilisation (where the stadiums in particular were used for ceremonies<ref name="Singh2008">Upinder Singh (2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA155&dq=dholavira+stadium&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiIvoqnkrniAhUDSRUIHbSaC6sQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=dholavira%20stadium&f=false A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century]''. Pearson Education India. p. 155. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0.</ref>).<ref name="AbrahamGullapalli2016">Shinu Anna Abraham; Praveena Gullapalli; Teresa P Raczek (16 June 2016). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ddRmDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA303&dq=dholavira+stadia&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiUmJPXlbniAhXqTBUIHevPAtIQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=dholavira%20stadia&f=false Connections and Complexity: New Approaches to the Archaeology of South Asia]''. Routledge. p. 303. ISBN 978-1-315-43184-0.</ref> The stadiums were built sometime between the 2,500 BC and 2,200 BC.<ref name="Possehl2002">Gregory L. Possehl (2002). ''[https://books.google.com.my/books?id=pmAuAsi4ePIC&pg=PA69&dq=dholavira+stadium&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiD0aWXnPPcAhWRV30KHarGDscQ6AEIQTAF#v=snippet&q=stadium&f=false The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective]''. Rowman Altamira. pp. 67–70. ISBN 978-0-7591-0172-2.</ref>
**The site at Dholavira contains at least two stadiums, along with several other public spaces.<ref name="Ahmed2014">Mukhtar Ahmed (25 October 2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3qvVBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA201&dq=dholavira+stadia&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiUmJPXlbniAhXqTBUIHevPAtIQ6AEIMzAC#v=onepage&q=dholavira%20stadia&f=false Ancient Pakistan - an Archaeological History: Volume III: Harappan Civilization - the Material Culture]''. Amazon. p. 201. ISBN 978-1-4959-6643-9.</ref><ref name="Possehl2002"/> Of these two, ''"one was small and compact and the other one vast"'', extending 283 meters by 45 to 47.5 meters, and it ''"also had the arrangement to accommodate spectators the way a modern stadium does"''.<ref name="Mobina Shaheen, R.S. Bhisht (September 1st, 2002)."/> It also had it's own drainage system to prevent water stagnating its grounds.<ref name="T.S. Subramanian (July 12th, 2013).">T.S. Subramanian (July 12th, 2013). ''[https://frontline.thehindu.com/arts-and-culture/heritage/the-harappan-hub/article4840474.ece The Harappan hub]''. Front Line, India's National Magazine. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190526131032/https://frontline.thehindu.com/arts-and-culture/heritage/the-harappan-hub/article4840474.ece WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 26th, 2019.</ref> Dholavira was substantially populated well before 3,000 BC to at least up to 2,000 BC.<ref name="Ahmed2014"/>
**Additionally; ''"...the stadium had stands in all the directions. They had the privilege of stepping construction for the ease of spectators, the broadest of which was 12 meters wide and included three or four terraces in ascending order...[t]he aforementioned stands built for the spectators were also a sort of abatement for the defensive walls of the castle and bailey"'' and that ''"east of the stadium, atop the huge defensive walls there were seating steps for the spectators too"''.<ref name="Mobina Shaheen, R.S. Bhisht (September 1st, 2002)."/>
**After the Indus Valley Civilisation, Greece has the oldest stadiums, the oldest being built in 776 BC.<ref name="Woolf2013">Alex Woolf (2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4bmeqYPMEsEC&pg=PA33&dq=oldest+stadium&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwipls-VlLniAhUxVRUIHQgxDMYQ6AEIXzAJ#v=onepage&q=oldest%20stadium&f=false Buildings]''. Raintree. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-4062-4973-6.</ref> However these stadiums were still much more primitive than the ones that the Harappans built; with Greek stadiums ''"often carved out of hillsides to allow a clear view"'', rather than being actual buildings.<ref name="Jason Treat, Ryan T. Williams, Haisam Hussein (2017).">Jason Treat, Ryan T. Williams, Haisam Hussein (2017). ''[https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/07/stadiums/ From Blood-Soaked Sand to Retractable Roofs: A History of Stadiums (Slide "APPROX. 800—200 B.C.")]''. National Geographic. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190526133029/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/07/stadiums/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 26th, 2019.</ref>

[[File:Har wam04.jpg|thumb|left|120px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Toilets found at Mound ET in the Harappa digging site, Pakistan. They toilets were not mechanical but did use flushing.</div>]]
::::::*'''Orthogonal Grid City/Town Planning'''—In the first half of the 4th millenium BC (c. 3,500 BC;<ref name="HonourFleming2005"/> others say c. 2,300 BC to 1,750 BC<ref name="HonourFleming2005">Hugh Honour; John Fleming (2005). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qGb4pyoseH4C&pg=PP164&dq=Grid+plan+indus+valley&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiK8ZCykrriAhWluXEKHfk7D_kQ6AEIQjAF#v=onepage&q=Grid%20plan%20indus%20valley&f=false A World History of Art]''. Laurence King Publishing. p. 164. ISBN 978-1-85669-451-3.</ref>) the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 7000 BC—c. 1300 BC) was the first to invent city/town planning (also known as orthogonal grid planning<ref name="HonourFleming2005"/>).<ref name="Wayne Senville (March 29th, 2010).">Wayne Senville (March 29th, 2010). ''[http://plannersweb.com/2010/03/origins-of-the-street-grid/ Origins of the Street Grid]''. Planning Commissioners Journal (online: Planners Web). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190526214826/http://plannersweb.com/2010/03/origins-of-the-street-grid/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 26th, 2019.</ref> This was demonstrated by the active planning of cities using the grid pattern.<ref name="Selin1997gridplanning">Helaine Selin (31 July 1997). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=raKRY3KQspsC&pg=PA205&dq=Grid+plan+indus+valley&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiK8ZCykrriAhWluXEKHfk7D_kQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Grid%20plan%20indus%20valley&f=false Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Westen Cultures]''. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 205. ISBN 978-0-7923-4066-9.</ref> This was where the streets were designed to be straight and actively intersected with other streets also made into straight lines, having met at right angles.<ref name="Selin1997gridplanning"/> The development of the grid pattern can directly be traced to ancient Greece, ancient Rome and medieval Europe from the Indus Valley.<ref name="Selin1997gridplanning"/> Many Hellenistic cities and towns were found to have replicated this design.<ref name="McIntosh2008p34">Jane McIntosh (2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC&pg=PA34&dq=Grid+plan+indus+valley&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiK8ZCykrriAhWluXEKHfk7D_kQ6AEILjAB#v=onepage&q=Grid%20plan%20indus%20valley&f=false The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives]''. ABC-CLIO. p. 34. ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2.</ref>

::::::*'''Flushing Toilet'''–Al-Shaykh Rais Al-Amal Badii Al-Zaman Abu Al-Izz Ibn Ismail Ibn Al-Razzaz Al-Jazari (''Jazari''; 1136–1206) was the first to invent the mechanical flushing mechanism, which allowed water to be flushed away using a handle/lever and then refilled with water; preceding the modern flushing mechanism by several hundred years.<ref name="Rosheim1994">Mark E. Rosheim (11 August 1994). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IxtL54iiDPUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Robot+Evolution:+The+Development+of+Anthrobotics&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjA-oPtx4DhAhWkSRUIHU0RASoQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=hand%20washing&f=false Robot Evolution: The Development of Anthrobotics]''. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 9–11. ISBN 978-0-471-02622-8.</ref> When the lever is pulled water flushes away, but after this, a female automaton refills the basin with water.<ref name="Rosheim1994"/> Historians thus credit him with the invention of the mechanical flushing mechanism,<ref name="Rosheim1994"/> with some going as far as saying he invented the flushing toilet.<ref name="HemalMenon2018">Ashok K. Hemal; Mani Menon (6 September 2018). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GE1tDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12&dq=hand+flush+toilet+jazari&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjgxOy814DhAhXzQRUIHcgzAlYQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=hand%20flush%20toilet%20jazari&f=false Robotics in Genitourinary Surgery]''. Springer. p. 12. ISBN 978-3-319-20645-5.</ref>
::::::**Flushing toilets (without handles/levers) were already used for a long time.<ref name="Chris Woodford (January 1st, 2019).">Chris Woodford (January 1st, 2019). ''[https://www.explainthatstuff.com/howtoiletswork.html How toilets work]''. Explain That Stuff. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190315021938/https://www.explainthatstuff.com/howtoiletswork.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 15th, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">The reliability of this website isd quite adequate:
:'''Quote:''' ''"Chris Woodford. Hello! I'm Chris Woodford, a British science writer, and I write all the articles on Explain that Stuff"''.

:'''Quote:''' ''"Books: I've written lots of books on science and technology, including the hugely popular how-it-works titles Cool Stuff and How it Works (How Cool Stuff Works) (with Ben Morgan et al), Cool Stuff 2.0 (The Gadget Book) (with Jon Woodcock), and Cool Stuff Exploded (published by Dorling Kindersley/DK), which have sold nearly four million copies worldwide. A couple of years ago, I wrote Science: A Visual/Children's Encyclopedia with Steve Parker, which has been garnering lots of five star reviews on Amazon. My latest book, Atoms Under the Floorboards: The Surprising Science Hidden in Your Home, is published by Bloomsbury and is available worldwide. I also work as a consultant and science adviser on other people's books, including children's science titles by Robert Winston, Johnny Ball, and Richard Hammond. Most recently, I've been helping David Macaulay with a revised edition of his classic mammoth book, The Way Things Work Now, which was Amazon.com's number one children's non-fiction book for 2016."''

:'''Quote:''' ''"Awards: Books I've written, edited, consulted on, or otherwise contributed to have been translated into about 20 different languages and won or been shortlisted for over 40 awards, including the Royal Society Young People's Book Prize (in the UK) and the National Science Teachers Association Outstanding Science Trade Book award (in the United States). Atoms Under the Floorboards won The American Institute of Physics Science Writing Award for Books 2016 and was named one of Physics World's Top 10 Physics Books of 2015. You can find a full list of my books, with review comments and details of the awards or other recognitions they've received on my personal website, chriswoodford.com."''

:'''Quote:''' ''"Qualifications and experience: In case you're interested, I have an MA in Natural Sciences from Cambridge University. I specialized in physics (which I was very lucky to have been able to study at the Cavendish Laboratory) and experimental psychology, but also covered chemistry, crystallography, materials science, and math. (That's largely why the articles on Explain that Stuff lean so heavily toward the physical sciences rather than life-science topics, which I know less about.) I've also spent a lot of my time working with computers and the Internet (I worked at IBM for about five years) and built my very first website in 1994, using an IBM System/390 mainframe and Mosaic. I had my first magazine article published back in 1981 (I was very young!) and I've been writing about science and technology pretty much ever since."''

:#''[https://www.explainthatstuff.com/chris-woodford.html Chris Woodford]''. Explain That Stuff. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190315022233/https://www.explainthatstuff.com/chris-woodford.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 15th, 2019.
</ref> The Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 7000 BC—c. 1300 BC<ref name="Ahmed2014p307–308">Mukhtar Ahmed (25 October 2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3qvVBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA308&dq=indus+Valley+Civilisation+(c.+5500+BC%E2%80%94c.+1300+BC)&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiNp_zghoPhAhVkt3EKHU4yBIwQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=indus%20Valley%20Civilisation%20(c.%205500%20BC%E2%80%94c.%201300%20BC)&f=false Ancient Pakistan - an Archaeological History: Volume III: Harappan Civilization - the Material Culture]''. Amazon. pp. 307–308. ISBN 978-1-4959-6643-9.</ref>) in Pakistan were the first to invent the concept of flushing toilets.<ref name="Austin2015"> Charles Austin (15 June 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KabmCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT9&dq=indus+valley+first+flush+toilets&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjm1qOthYPhAhXGShUIHZasCN0Q6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=indus%20valley%20first%20flush%20toilets&f=false The Toilet Book: What Goes In Matters]''. First Edition Design Pub. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-62287-951-9.</ref> There was a toilet in every house connected to a drainage sewage system.<ref name="EslamianEslamian2017">Saeid Eslamian; Faezeh A. Eslamian (1 September 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=46QzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT689&dq=toilet+in+every+house+indus&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwifh_TugoPhAhXrVBUIHdaGBdQQ6AEIRDAF#v=onepage&q=toilet%20in%20every%20house%20indus&f=false Handbook of Drought and Water Scarcity: Management of Drought and Water Scarcity]''. CRC Press. p. 689. ISBN 978-1-351-85113-8.</ref><ref name="JuutiKatko2007">Petri S. Juuti; Tapio Katko; H. Vuorinen (1 February 2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pZDbCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA22&dq=toilet+in+every+house+indus&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwifh_TugoPhAhXrVBUIHdaGBdQQ6AEINDAC#v=onepage&q=toilet%20in%20every%20house%20indus&f=false Environmental History of Water]''. IWA Publishing. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-84339-110-4.</ref><ref name="AngelakisRose2014"/> The plumbing inside houses was so advanced that flush toilets were found as high as second floors.<ref name="Seaman1996">Paul Asbury Seaman (1996). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mw47iScUvpwC&pg=PA267&dq=flushing+toilets+indus+valley&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjvgIj6gIPhAhWmThUIHUI9DwwQ6AEINDAC#v=onepage&q=flushing%20toilets%20indus%20valley&f=false Far Above the Plain: Private Profiles and Admissable Evidence from the First Forty Years of Murree Christian School, Pakistan, 1956-1996]''. William Carey Library. p. 267. ISBN 978-0-87808-268-1.</ref> Toilets were flushed using jars of water.<ref name="AngelakisRose2014">Andreas N. Angelakis; Joan B. Rose (14 September 2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mbgrBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA35&dq=toilet+in+every+house+indus&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwifh_TugoPhAhXrVBUIHdaGBdQQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=toilet%20in%20every%20house%20indus&f=false Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies through the Centuries]''. IWA Publishing. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-78040-484-4.</ref> Hygiene in Pakistan seems to have carried on from the Indus, as only about a tenth (~12%) of Pakistanis openly defecate today,<ref name="Kitka Goyol (2018).">Kitka Goyol (2018). ''[http://washfutures.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/E3_Kitka-Goyol.pdf Pakistan- Empowering communities to end open defecation using participatory community-led approaches]''. Wash Futures (UNICEF). pg. 1-12. pg. 2. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190315120754/http://washfutures.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/E3_Kitka-Goyol.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 15th, 2019.</ref> whereas in India a staggering 524 million (or 40%) of them do.<ref name="Peter Beaumont (19th March 2018).">Peter Beaumont (19th March 2018). ''[https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2018/mar/19/life-without-toilets-photographer-taboo-andrea-bruce Life without toilets: the photographer tackling a global taboo]''. The Guardian. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190315121641/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2018/mar/19/life-without-toilets-photographer-taboo-andrea-bruce WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 15th, 2019.</ref>

[[File:Ancient dams pakistan.jpg|thumb|right|150px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Dams in ancient Pakistan are 4,600—5,300 years old and may possibly be as old as 9,000 years old.</div>]]
*'''Dam'''—The oldest ''known'' dam (according to some scholars as this is disputed amongst academia) is the Jawa Dam found in Jordan which has been dated to 3,000 BC (and may possibly be even older<ref name="Viollet2007">Pierre-Louis Viollet (1 July 2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dEjLBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA292&dq=indus+valley+oldest+dam&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiv1L2brLniAhXHTBUIHYCJD0UQ6AEIUTAG#v=onepage&q=indus%20valley%20oldest%20dam&f=false Water Engineering in Ancient Civilizations: 5,000 Years of History]''. CRC Press. p. 292. ISBN 978-0-203-37531-0.</ref>).<ref group="n.">One author in a peer-reviewed article recently claimed that King Menes of Egypt built a possible dam-like structure near the river Memphis in 4,000 BC, saying; ''"Near Memphis, there are relics of a masonry wall built across the river by King Menes in 4000 BC"''. However the author appears to have made a mistake here as this is an obvious error. King Menes of Egypt (where Memphis can be found) lived only in and around 3,000 BC (3,150 BC to be precise), so it appears the author should have used ''"3000 BC"'' instead of ''"4000 BC"''. The possible Dam-like structure therefore appears to have only been constructed in and around 3000 BC.
#Bhattacharyya, Kumkum (2011). ''"[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-94-007-0467-1_1 Purpose and Perspectives]"'': 1–22. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-0467-1_1. ISSN 1879-7180.
#Steven Solomon (5 January 2010). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_RZb0qUzRrgC&pg=PA30&dq=King+Menes+3150+BC&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjK1-nFubniAhXlrnEKHWYSCQoQ6AEIQTAE#v=onepage&q=King%20Menes%203150%20BC&f=false Water: The Epic Struggle for Wealth, Power, and Civilization]''. HarperCollins e-books. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-06-054830-8.</ref> However the oldest definite use of dams can be found in pre-historic Pakistan, specifically in Mergarh, dated 7,000 BC to 2,500 BC (some scholars haved dated the dams to the early Harappan period;<ref name="AngelakisRose2014p47">Andreas N. Angelakis; Joan B. Rose (14 September 2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=mbgrBQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA47&dq=mehrgarh+oldest+dam&ots=rXYOq_adt1&sig=s4mzdCFIkhKyaQOkpj4pe5LE2rU#v=onepage&q=gabarbands%20&f=false Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies through the Centuries]''. IWA Publishing. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-78040-484-4.</ref> 3,300 BC—2,600 BC<ref name="ClausDiamond2003">Peter J. Claus; Sarah Diamond; Margaret Ann Mills (2003). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ienxrTPHzzwC&pg=PA187&dq=early+Harappan+period+3,300+2,600&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjtxd_nsbniAhU2WxUIHTC2DdoQ6AEINzAC#v=onepage&q=early%20Harappan%20period%203%2C300%202%2C600&f=false South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia : Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka]''. Taylor & Francis. p. 187. ISBN 978-0-415-93919-5.</ref>), whilst other information suggests that they may have been used as early as 9,000 years ago given that this was when terrace agriculture first appeared in Pakistan.<ref name="Baba2018">Baba, Alper (2018). ''[https://medcraveonline.com/IJH/IJH-02-00064.php Developments in water dams and water harvesting systems throughout history in different civilizations]''. International Journal of Hydrology. 2 (2). doi:10.15406/ijh.2018.02.00064. ISSN 2576-4454.</ref><ref name="Warkentin2006">Benno P Warkentin (18 April 2006). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPeHdyRdQcMC&pg=PA507&dq=gabarbands+7000&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjx67Ojs7niAhWBUxUIHWbSBYwQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=gabarbands%207000&f=false Footprints in the Soil: People and Ideas in Soil History]''. Elsevier. p. 507. ISBN 978-0-08-047787-9.</ref> 
**The dams in Pakistan were constructed as ''"stone walls built along slopes in association with torrents"'', where the ''"function of these walls was to trap and/or collect water for various purposes such as terracing fields, making water tanks, diverting and channelizing reservoirs"''.<ref name="Baba2018"/>
**Interestingly, the earliest evidence of agriculture itself first appeared in both Yemen and Pakistan between 10,000 and 13,000 years ago (the older culture being in the Baluchistan region of Pakistan where agriculture was first invented and developed), with China being the second oldest at 8,500 to 10,000 years old.<ref name="Warkentin2006"/> However, it must be noted that this is disputed, as agriculture may be even older than this by at least between 25,000 and 105,000 years.
***The third oldest region is Papua New Guinea at 9,000 years old, the Mediterranean at 8,000 years old, North Africa at 6,500 years old and joint 6th is the non-Baluchistan regions of Pakistan and Europe at 5,000 to 7,000 years old.<ref name="Warkentin2006"/> Subsaharan Africa was late 3,000 to 5,000 years old.<ref name="Warkentin2006"/>
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'''[[#Astronomy & Universe (4)|Astronomy]]''' •
'''[[#Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)|Agriculture, Food & Beverage]]''' •
'''[[#Biology (2)|Biology]]''' (''[[#Paleontology (10)|Paleontology]]'') •
'''[[#Chemistry (5)|Chemistry]]''' •
'''[[#Computing (4)|Computing]]''' (''[[#Video-gaming (1)|Video-gaming]] • [[#Board Games (1)|Board-games]]'') •
'''[[#Mathematics (3)|Mathematics]]''' •
'''[[#Medicines (1)|Medicine]]''' (''[[#Disease Eradication (1)|Disease Eradication]]'' • ''[[#Genetics & Disease (5)|Genetics & Disease]]'' • ''[[#Medical Instruments (6)|Instruments]]'') •
'''[[#Physics (5)|Physics]]''' •
'''Engineering''' (''[[#Naval Engineering (1)|Naval]]'' • ''[[#Mechanical Engineering (7)|Mechanical]]'' • ''[[#Handtool Engineering (3)|Handtool]]'' • ''[[#Textile Engineering (3)|Textile]]'' (''[[#Clothing (2)|Clothing]]'') • ''[[#Architectural Engineering (4)|Architectural]]'') •
'''[[#Sport & Recreation (2)|Sport & Recreation]]''' •
'''[[#Disputed (2)|Disputed]]''' •
[[#Further Reading|Further Reading]] •
[[#Sources|Sources]] •
(''[[#Footnotes|Footnotes]]'' • ''[[#References|References]]'' • ''[[#Acknowledgements|Acknowledgements]]'') •
[[#External Links|External Links]] •
'''''Total Inventions & Discoveries Listed: 77'''''
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete. See also '''[[List of Inventions and Discoveries in Mechanics During the Islamic Golden Age]]'''''
[[File:Stadium.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:70%;">Stadiums were invented over 4,000 years ago in Pakistan.</div>]]
*'''Stadium'''—The Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 7000 BC—c. 1300 BC) was the first to invent the concept of stadiums (which were very much like modern stadiums<ref name="Mobina Shaheen, R.S. Bhisht (September 1st, 2002).">Mobina Shaheen, R.S. Bhisht (September 1st, 2002). ''[http://www.anistor.gr/english/enback/p023.htm Dholavira and the Harappan Stadia in India]''. Journal of History, Archaeology, Art History (ANISTORITON). Issue No. P023. ISSN 1108-4081. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190526124905/http://www.anistor.gr/english/enback/p023.htm WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 26th, 2019.</ref>). Indeed the earliest stadium known in history is to be found in Dholavira, Gujarat, India, which was once a part of ancient Pakistan (where a famous 10 lettered signboard was also discovered<ref name="Possehl2002"/>).<ref>''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lzBuAAAAMAAJ&q=The+earliest+and+the+largest+stadium+found+so+far+perhaps+accredited+to+the+Harappans&dq=The+earliest+and+the+largest+stadium+found+so+far+perhaps+accredited+to+the+Harappans&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiYlueIlrniAhVhtHEKHa08DGQQ6AEIKjAA Purātattva]''. Issue No. 29. Journal of the Indian Archaeological Society. Indian Archaeological Society. University of Michigan. Digitized September 2nd, 2008. 1999. p. 32.</ref> This, along with several other structures provides concrete evidence that public activities were carried out in this civilisation (where the stadiums in particular were used for ceremonies<ref name="Singh2008">Upinder Singh (2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA155&dq=dholavira+stadium&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiIvoqnkrniAhUDSRUIHbSaC6sQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=dholavira%20stadium&f=false A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century]''. Pearson Education India. p. 155. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0.</ref>).<ref name="AbrahamGullapalli2016">Shinu Anna Abraham; Praveena Gullapalli; Teresa P Raczek (16 June 2016). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ddRmDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA303&dq=dholavira+stadia&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiUmJPXlbniAhXqTBUIHevPAtIQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=dholavira%20stadia&f=false Connections and Complexity: New Approaches to the Archaeology of South Asia]''. Routledge. p. 303. ISBN 978-1-315-43184-0.</ref> The stadiums were built sometime between the 2,500 BC and 2,200 BC.<ref name="Possehl2002">Gregory L. Possehl (2002). ''[https://books.google.com.my/books?id=pmAuAsi4ePIC&pg=PA69&dq=dholavira+stadium&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiD0aWXnPPcAhWRV30KHarGDscQ6AEIQTAF#v=snippet&q=stadium&f=false The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective]''. Rowman Altamira. pp. 67–70. ISBN 978-0-7591-0172-2.</ref>
**The site at Dholavira contains at least two stadiums, along with several other public spaces.<ref name="Ahmed2014">Mukhtar Ahmed (25 October 2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3qvVBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA201&dq=dholavira+stadia&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiUmJPXlbniAhXqTBUIHevPAtIQ6AEIMzAC#v=onepage&q=dholavira%20stadia&f=false Ancient Pakistan - an Archaeological History: Volume III: Harappan Civilization - the Material Culture]''. Amazon. p. 201. ISBN 978-1-4959-6643-9.</ref><ref name="Possehl2002"/> Of these two, ''"one was small and compact and the other one vast"'', extending 283 meters by 45 to 47.5 meters, and it ''"also had the arrangement to accommodate spectators the way a modern stadium does"''.<ref name="Mobina Shaheen, R.S. Bhisht (September 1st, 2002)."/> It also had it's own drainage system to prevent water stagnating its grounds.<ref name="T.S. Subramanian (July 12th, 2013).">T.S. Subramanian (July 12th, 2013). ''[https://frontline.thehindu.com/arts-and-culture/heritage/the-harappan-hub/article4840474.ece The Harappan hub]''. Front Line, India's National Magazine. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190526131032/https://frontline.thehindu.com/arts-and-culture/heritage/the-harappan-hub/article4840474.ece WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 26th, 2019.</ref> Dholavira was substantially populated well before 3,000 BC to at least up to 2,000 BC.<ref name="Ahmed2014"/>
**Additionally; ''"...the stadium had stands in all the directions. They had the privilege of stepping construction for the ease of spectators, the broadest of which was 12 meters wide and included three or four terraces in ascending order...[t]he aforementioned stands built for the spectators were also a sort of abatement for the defensive walls of the castle and bailey"'' and that ''"east of the stadium, atop the huge defensive walls there were seating steps for the spectators too"''.<ref name="Mobina Shaheen, R.S. Bhisht (September 1st, 2002)."/>
**After the Indus Valley Civilisation, Greece has the oldest stadiums, the oldest being built in 776 BC.<ref name="Woolf2013">Alex Woolf (2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4bmeqYPMEsEC&pg=PA33&dq=oldest+stadium&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwipls-VlLniAhUxVRUIHQgxDMYQ6AEIXzAJ#v=onepage&q=oldest%20stadium&f=false Buildings]''. Raintree. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-4062-4973-6.</ref> However these stadiums were still much more primitive than the ones that the Harappans built; with Greek stadiums ''"often carved out of hillsides to allow a clear view"'', rather than being actual buildings.<ref name="Jason Treat, Ryan T. Williams, Haisam Hussein (2017).">Jason Treat, Ryan T. Williams, Haisam Hussein (2017). ''[https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/07/stadiums/ From Blood-Soaked Sand to Retractable Roofs: A History of Stadiums (Slide "APPROX. 800—200 B.C.")]''. National Geographic. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190526133029/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/07/stadiums/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 26th, 2019.</ref>

[[File:Har wam04.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Toilets found at Mound ET in the Harappa digging site, Pakistan. They toilets were not mechanical but did use flushing.</div>]]
*'''Orthogonal Grid City/Town Planning'''—In the first half of the 4th millenium BC (c. 3,500 BC;<ref name="HonourFleming2005"/> others say c. 2,300 BC to 1,750 BC<ref name="HonourFleming2005">Hugh Honour; John Fleming (2005). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qGb4pyoseH4C&pg=PP164&dq=Grid+plan+indus+valley&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiK8ZCykrriAhWluXEKHfk7D_kQ6AEIQjAF#v=onepage&q=Grid%20plan%20indus%20valley&f=false A World History of Art]''. Laurence King Publishing. p. 164. ISBN 978-1-85669-451-3.</ref>) the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 7000 BC—c. 1300 BC) was the first to invent city/town planning (also known as orthogonal grid planning<ref name="HonourFleming2005"/>).<ref name="Wayne Senville (March 29th, 2010).">Wayne Senville (March 29th, 2010). ''[http://plannersweb.com/2010/03/origins-of-the-street-grid/ Origins of the Street Grid]''. Planning Commissioners Journal (online: Planners Web). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190526214826/http://plannersweb.com/2010/03/origins-of-the-street-grid/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved May 26th, 2019.</ref> This was demonstrated by the active planning of cities using the grid pattern.<ref name="Selin1997gridplanning">Helaine Selin (31 July 1997). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=raKRY3KQspsC&pg=PA205&dq=Grid+plan+indus+valley&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiK8ZCykrriAhWluXEKHfk7D_kQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Grid%20plan%20indus%20valley&f=false Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Westen Cultures]''. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 205. ISBN 978-0-7923-4066-9.</ref> This was where the streets were designed to be straight and actively intersected with other streets also made into straight lines, having met at right angles.<ref name="Selin1997gridplanning"/> The development of the grid pattern can directly be traced to ancient Greece, ancient Rome and medieval Europe from the Indus Valley.<ref name="Selin1997gridplanning"/> Many Hellenistic cities and towns were found to have replicated this design.<ref name="McIntosh2008p34">Jane McIntosh (2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC&pg=PA34&dq=Grid+plan+indus+valley&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiK8ZCykrriAhWluXEKHfk7D_kQ6AEILjAB#v=onepage&q=Grid%20plan%20indus%20valley&f=false The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives]''. ABC-CLIO. p. 34. ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2.</ref>

*'''Flushing Toilet'''–Al-Shaykh Rais Al-Amal Badii Al-Zaman Abu Al-Izz Ibn Ismail Ibn Al-Razzaz Al-Jazari (''Jazari''; 1136–1206) was the first to invent the mechanical flushing mechanism, which allowed water to be flushed away using a handle/lever and then refilled with water; preceding the modern flushing mechanism by several hundred years.<ref name="Rosheim1994">Mark E. Rosheim (11 August 1994). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IxtL54iiDPUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Robot+Evolution:+The+Development+of+Anthrobotics&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjA-oPtx4DhAhWkSRUIHU0RASoQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=hand%20washing&f=false Robot Evolution: The Development of Anthrobotics]''. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 9–11. ISBN 978-0-471-02622-8.</ref> When the lever is pulled water flushes away, but after this, a female automaton refills the basin with water.<ref name="Rosheim1994"/> Historians thus credit him with the invention of the mechanical flushing mechanism,<ref name="Rosheim1994"/> with some going as far as saying he invented the flushing toilet.<ref name="HemalMenon2018">Ashok K. Hemal; Mani Menon (6 September 2018). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GE1tDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12&dq=hand+flush+toilet+jazari&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjgxOy814DhAhXzQRUIHcgzAlYQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=hand%20flush%20toilet%20jazari&f=false Robotics in Genitourinary Surgery]''. Springer. p. 12. ISBN 978-3-319-20645-5.</ref>
**Flushing toilets (without handles/levers) were already used for a long time.<ref name="Chris Woodford (January 1st, 2019).">Chris Woodford (January 1st, 2019). ''[https://www.explainthatstuff.com/howtoiletswork.html How toilets work]''. Explain That Stuff. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190315021938/https://www.explainthatstuff.com/howtoiletswork.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 15th, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">The reliability of this website isd quite adequate:
:'''Quote:''' ''"Chris Woodford. Hello! I'm Chris Woodford, a British science writer, and I write all the articles on Explain that Stuff"''.

:'''Quote:''' ''"Books: I've written lots of books on science and technology, including the hugely popular how-it-works titles Cool Stuff and How it Works (How Cool Stuff Works) (with Ben Morgan et al), Cool Stuff 2.0 (The Gadget Book) (with Jon Woodcock), and Cool Stuff Exploded (published by Dorling Kindersley/DK), which have sold nearly four million copies worldwide. A couple of years ago, I wrote Science: A Visual/Children's Encyclopedia with Steve Parker, which has been garnering lots of five star reviews on Amazon. My latest book, Atoms Under the Floorboards: The Surprising Science Hidden in Your Home, is published by Bloomsbury and is available worldwide. I also work as a consultant and science adviser on other people's books, including children's science titles by Robert Winston, Johnny Ball, and Richard Hammond. Most recently, I've been helping David Macaulay with a revised edition of his classic mammoth book, The Way Things Work Now, which was Amazon.com's number one children's non-fiction book for 2016."''

:'''Quote:''' ''"Awards: Books I've written, edited, consulted on, or otherwise contributed to have been translated into about 20 different languages and won or been shortlisted for over 40 awards, including the Royal Society Young People's Book Prize (in the UK) and the National Science Teachers Association Outstanding Science Trade Book award (in the United States). Atoms Under the Floorboards won The American Institute of Physics Science Writing Award for Books 2016 and was named one of Physics World's Top 10 Physics Books of 2015. You can find a full list of my books, with review comments and details of the awards or other recognitions they've received on my personal website, chriswoodford.com."''

:'''Quote:''' ''"Qualifications and experience: In case you're interested, I have an MA in Natural Sciences from Cambridge University. I specialized in physics (which I was very lucky to have been able to study at the Cavendish Laboratory) and experimental psychology, but also covered chemistry, crystallography, materials science, and math. (That's largely why the articles on Explain that Stuff lean so heavily toward the physical sciences rather than life-science topics, which I know less about.) I've also spent a lot of my time working with computers and the Internet (I worked at IBM for about five years) and built my very first website in 1994, using an IBM System/390 mainframe and Mosaic. I had my first magazine article published back in 1981 (I was very young!) and I've been writing about science and technology pretty much ever since."''

:#''[https://www.explainthatstuff.com/chris-woodford.html Chris Woodford]''. Explain That Stuff. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190315022233/https://www.explainthatstuff.com/chris-woodford.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 15th, 2019.
</ref> The Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 7000 BC—c. 1300 BC<ref name="Ahmed2014p307–308">Mukhtar Ahmed (25 October 2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3qvVBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA308&dq=indus+Valley+Civilisation+(c.+5500+BC%E2%80%94c.+1300+BC)&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiNp_zghoPhAhVkt3EKHU4yBIwQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=indus%20Valley%20Civilisation%20(c.%205500%20BC%E2%80%94c.%201300%20BC)&f=false Ancient Pakistan - an Archaeological History: Volume III: Harappan Civilization - the Material Culture]''. Amazon. pp. 307–308. ISBN 978-1-4959-6643-9.</ref>) in Pakistan were the first to invent the concept of flushing toilets.<ref name="Austin2015"> Charles Austin (15 June 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KabmCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT9&dq=indus+valley+first+flush+toilets&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjm1qOthYPhAhXGShUIHZasCN0Q6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=indus%20valley%20first%20flush%20toilets&f=false The Toilet Book: What Goes In Matters]''. First Edition Design Pub. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-62287-951-9.</ref> There was a toilet in every house connected to a drainage sewage system.<ref name="EslamianEslamian2017">Saeid Eslamian; Faezeh A. Eslamian (1 September 2017). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=46QzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT689&dq=toilet+in+every+house+indus&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwifh_TugoPhAhXrVBUIHdaGBdQQ6AEIRDAF#v=onepage&q=toilet%20in%20every%20house%20indus&f=false Handbook of Drought and Water Scarcity: Management of Drought and Water Scarcity]''. CRC Press. p. 689. ISBN 978-1-351-85113-8.</ref><ref name="JuutiKatko2007">Petri S. Juuti; Tapio Katko; H. Vuorinen (1 February 2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pZDbCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA22&dq=toilet+in+every+house+indus&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwifh_TugoPhAhXrVBUIHdaGBdQQ6AEINDAC#v=onepage&q=toilet%20in%20every%20house%20indus&f=false Environmental History of Water]''. IWA Publishing. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-84339-110-4.</ref><ref name="AngelakisRose2014"/> The plumbing inside houses was so advanced that flush toilets were found as high as second floors.<ref name="Seaman1996">Paul Asbury Seaman (1996). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mw47iScUvpwC&pg=PA267&dq=flushing+toilets+indus+valley&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjvgIj6gIPhAhWmThUIHUI9DwwQ6AEINDAC#v=onepage&q=flushing%20toilets%20indus%20valley&f=false Far Above the Plain: Private Profiles and Admissable Evidence from the First Forty Years of Murree Christian School, Pakistan, 1956-1996]''. William Carey Library. p. 267. ISBN 978-0-87808-268-1.</ref> Toilets were flushed using jars of water.<ref name="AngelakisRose2014">Andreas N. Angelakis; Joan B. Rose (14 September 2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mbgrBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA35&dq=toilet+in+every+house+indus&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwifh_TugoPhAhXrVBUIHdaGBdQQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=toilet%20in%20every%20house%20indus&f=false Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies through the Centuries]''. IWA Publishing. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-78040-484-4.</ref> Hygiene in Pakistan seems to have carried on from the Indus, as only about a tenth (~12%) of Pakistanis openly defecate today,<ref name="Kitka Goyol (2018).">Kitka Goyol (2018). ''[http://washfutures.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/E3_Kitka-Goyol.pdf Pakistan- Empowering communities to end open defecation using participatory community-led approaches]''. Wash Futures (UNICEF). pg. 1-12. pg. 2. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190315120754/http://washfutures.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/E3_Kitka-Goyol.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 15th, 2019.</ref> whereas in India a staggering 524 million (or 40%) of them do.<ref name="Peter Beaumont (19th March 2018).">Peter Beaumont (19th March 2018). ''[https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2018/mar/19/life-without-toilets-photographer-taboo-andrea-bruce Life without toilets: the photographer tackling a global taboo]''. The Guardian. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190315121641/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2018/mar/19/life-without-toilets-photographer-taboo-andrea-bruce WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved March 15th, 2019.</ref>

[[File:Ancient dams pakistan.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Dams in ancient Pakistan are 4,600—5,300 years old and may possibly be as old as 9,000 years old.</div>]]
*'''Dam'''—The oldest ''known'' dam (according to some scholars as this is disputed amongst academia) is the Jawa Dam found in Jordan which has been dated to 3,000 BC (and may possibly be even older<ref name="Viollet2007">Pierre-Louis Viollet (1 July 2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dEjLBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA292&dq=indus+valley+oldest+dam&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiv1L2brLniAhXHTBUIHYCJD0UQ6AEIUTAG#v=onepage&q=indus%20valley%20oldest%20dam&f=false Water Engineering in Ancient Civilizations: 5,000 Years of History]''. CRC Press. p. 292. ISBN 978-0-203-37531-0.</ref>).<ref group="n.">One author in a peer-reviewed article recently claimed that King Menes of Egypt built a possible dam-like structure near the river Memphis in 4,000 BC, saying; ''"Near Memphis, there are relics of a masonry wall built across the river by King Menes in 4000 BC"''. However the author appears to have made a mistake here as this is an obvious error. King Menes of Egypt (where Memphis can be found) lived only in and around 3,000 BC (3,150 BC to be precise), so it appears the author should have used ''"3000 BC"'' instead of ''"4000 BC"''. The possible Dam-like structure therefore appears to have only been constructed in and around 3000 BC.
#Bhattacharyya, Kumkum (2011). ''"[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-94-007-0467-1_1 Purpose and Perspectives]"'': 1–22. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-0467-1_1. ISSN 1879-7180.
#Steven Solomon (5 January 2010). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_RZb0qUzRrgC&pg=PA30&dq=King+Menes+3150+BC&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjK1-nFubniAhXlrnEKHWYSCQoQ6AEIQTAE#v=onepage&q=King%20Menes%203150%20BC&f=false Water: The Epic Struggle for Wealth, Power, and Civilization]''. HarperCollins e-books. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-06-054830-8.</ref> However the oldest definite use of dams can be found in pre-historic Pakistan, specifically in Mergarh, dated 7,000 BC to 2,500 BC (some scholars haved dated the dams to the early Harappan period;<ref name="AngelakisRose2014p47">Andreas N. Angelakis; Joan B. Rose (14 September 2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=mbgrBQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA47&dq=mehrgarh+oldest+dam&ots=rXYOq_adt1&sig=s4mzdCFIkhKyaQOkpj4pe5LE2rU#v=onepage&q=gabarbands%20&f=false Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies through the Centuries]''. IWA Publishing. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-78040-484-4.</ref> 3,300 BC—2,600 BC<ref name="ClausDiamond2003">Peter J. Claus; Sarah Diamond; Margaret Ann Mills (2003). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ienxrTPHzzwC&pg=PA187&dq=early+Harappan+period+3,300+2,600&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjtxd_nsbniAhU2WxUIHTC2DdoQ6AEINzAC#v=onepage&q=early%20Harappan%20period%203%2C300%202%2C600&f=false South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia : Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka]''. Taylor & Francis. p. 187. ISBN 978-0-415-93919-5.</ref>), whilst other information suggests that they may have been used as early as 9,000 years ago given that this was when terrace agriculture first appeared in Pakistan.<ref name="Baba2018">Baba, Alper (2018). ''[https://medcraveonline.com/IJH/IJH-02-00064.php Developments in water dams and water harvesting systems throughout history in different civilizations]''. International Journal of Hydrology. 2 (2). doi:10.15406/ijh.2018.02.00064. ISSN 2576-4454.</ref><ref name="Warkentin2006">Benno P Warkentin (18 April 2006). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPeHdyRdQcMC&pg=PA507&dq=gabarbands+7000&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjx67Ojs7niAhWBUxUIHWbSBYwQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=gabarbands%207000&f=false Footprints in the Soil: People and Ideas in Soil History]''. Elsevier. p. 507. ISBN 978-0-08-047787-9.</ref> 
**The dams in Pakistan were constructed as ''"stone walls built along slopes in association with torrents"'', where the ''"function of these walls was to trap and/or collect water for various purposes such as terracing fields, making water tanks, diverting and channelizing reservoirs"''.<ref name="Baba2018"/>
**Interestingly, the earliest evidence of agriculture itself first appeared in both Yemen and Pakistan between 10,000 and 13,000 years ago (the older culture being in the Baluchistan region of Pakistan where agriculture was first invented and developed), with China being the second oldest at 8,500 to 10,000 years old.<ref name="Warkentin2006"/> However, it must be noted that this is disputed, as agriculture may be even older than this by at least between 25,000 and 105,000 years.
***The third oldest region is Papua New Guinea at 9,000 years old, the Mediterranean at 8,000 years old, North Africa at 6,500 years old and joint 6th is the non-Baluchistan regions of Pakistan and Europe at 5,000 to 7,000 years old.<ref name="Warkentin2006"/> Subsaharan Africa was late 3,000 to 5,000 years old.<ref name="Warkentin2006"/>
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===Paleontology (10)===
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete.
[[File:Lavocatisaurus agrioensis-novataxa 2018-Canudo Carballido Garrido et Salgado--paleoArt-Gabriel Lio.jpg|thumb|right|140px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:70%;">Titanosaurs and their bones. Note the vertebrae which are used to distinguish species of titanosauria.</div>]]

*'''''Balochisaurus malkani'''''—In 2004,<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/><ref name="WilsonBarrett2011"/> M. S. Malkani (19??—Present) was the first to discover a new species of dinosaur, which he named ''"[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balochisaurus Balochisaurus Malkani]"'' (etymologically ''"Balochi, honoring the Baloch tribes of Pakistan, as they host the Kachi Bohri locality from Central Sulaiman Range; saurus means reptiles"'', and ''"Malkani"'' named eponymously).<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/><ref name="WilsonBarrett2011"/> It belongs to the ''titanosaurs'' dinosaur group.<ref name="Prothero2019"/> Titanosaurs were the most diverse and widespread species of sauropod dinosaurs.<ref name="Novas2009"/> The specimens can be found at the ''"Museum of Geological Survey of Pakistan"'', in Quetta, Balochistan.<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/> It is one of 11 species of sauropoda to have been discovered on the subcontinent (interestingly 5 of the 11 have been discovered by Malkani alone).<ref name="WilsonBarrett2011"/>

*'''''Khetranisaurus barkhani'''''—In 2004,<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/><ref name="WilsonBarrett2011"/> M. S. Malkani (19??—Present) was the first to discover a new species of dinosaur, which he had the honour of naming ''"[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khetranisaurus Khetranisaurus barkhani]"'' (etymologically ''"Khetrani, honoring the Khetran tribe of Barkhan district; saurus means reptiles...barkhani, honoring the Barkhan which is the host District of dinosaurs"'').<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/> It belongs to the ''titanosaurs'' dinosaur group.<ref name="Prothero2019"/> Titanosaurs were the most diverse and widespread species of sauropod dinosaurs.<ref name="Novas2009"/> The specimens can be found at the ''"Museum of Geological Survey of Pakistan"'', in Quetta, Balochistan.<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/> It is one of 11 species of sauropoda to have been discovered on the Indian subcontinent (interestingly 5 of the 11 have been discovered by Malkani alone).<ref name="WilsonBarrett2011"/>

*'''''Malakhelisaurus mianwali'''''—In 2007, a new species of dinosaur was discovered by M. S. Malkani (19??—Present) called ''"[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malakhelisaurus Malakhelisaurus mianwali]"'' (etymologically from ''"Malakhel...the name of the area; Saurus is for reptile and Mianwali...the host district of the site"'',<ref name="Suhail Yusuf (April 2nd, 2011)."/> it was previously known as ''"Malasaurus"'').<ref name="M. S. Malkani (2007)."/><ref name="fossilworksmianwali">''[http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?action=taxonInfo&taxon_no=197545 †Malakhelisaurus mianwali Malkani 2007 (Malakhel lizard) PaleoDB taxon number: 197545]''. Fossil Works. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014073246/http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?action=taxonInfo&taxon_no=197545 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref> It was a close relation of the largest herbivore titanosaurian sauropods.<ref name="Suhail Yusuf (April 2nd, 2011)."/> The distinguishing features were that it had a ''"huge body, small head and fat neck with pillar-like legs"'', which ''"was 30 feet long and almost 10 to 15 feet high"'', and ''"weigh[ing] more than 30 tones"''.<ref name="Suhail Yusuf (April 2nd, 2011)."/><ref group="n.">For images of the dinosaur see this;
#''[https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Malakhelisaurus-mianwali-based-on-tracks-or-Gspsaurus-pakistani-medium-sized-stocky-more_fig10_331150025 Malakhelisaurus mianwali based on tracks or Gspsaurus pakistani medium sized stocky more derived titanosaur based on bone fossils model; 3-D Model of Zhob ichnite managed by Mr. Nicholas Allen-a British Journalist and Malakhelisaurus mianwali prepared by Dr. Dmitry Bogdanov-a Cardiologist in Chelyabinsk Russia and also a paleoartist https://dibgd.deviant art.com. 3 D modal of Zhob tracks is compositely prepared by Factum Arte, Factum Foundation, London, UK after getting more than 11000 images (Nicholas Allen 2018)]''. Research Gate. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014073918/https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Malakhelisaurus-mianwali-based-on-tracks-or-Gspsaurus-pakistani-medium-sized-stocky-more_fig10_331150025 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref> It was discovered when paleontologists found footprints carved into rock, ''"a print of nearly one meter in moist clay or on wet muddy surface"''.<ref name="Suhail Yusuf (April 2nd, 2011)."/>

[[File:Titanosaur.jpg|thumb|left|140px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:70%;">Titanosaur size.</div>]]

:::::::*'''''Marisaurus jeffi'''''—In 2003,<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/><ref name="WilsonBarrett2011"/> M. S. Malkani (19??—Present) was the first to discover a new species of dinosaur, which he had the honour of naming ''"[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marisaurus Marisaurus jeffi]"'' (etymologically ''"Mari, honoring the Mari tribes Bohri locality from Central Sulaiman Range; saurus means reptiles. The species specific epithet jeffi, honoring the Dr Jeffery A. Wilson"'').<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/><ref name="WilsonBarrett2011"/> It belongs to the ''titanosaurs'' dinosaur group.<ref name="Prothero2019"/> Titanosaurs were the most diverse and widespread species of sauropod dinosaurs.<ref name="Novas2009"/> The specimens can be found at the ''"Museum of Geological Survey of Pakistan"'', in Quetta, Balochistan.<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/> It is one of 11 species of sauropoda to have been discovered on the Indian subcontinent (interestingly 5 of the 11 have been discovered by Malkani alone).<ref name="WilsonBarrett2011"/>

:::::::*'''''Pakisaurus balochistani'''''—In 2004,<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/><ref name="WilsonBarrett2011"/> M. S. Malkani (19??—Present) was the first to discover a new species of dinosaur, which he had the honour of naming ''"[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakisaurus Pakisaurus balochistani]"'' (etymologically ''"Paki, from Pakistan, which is the country of origin; saurus means reptiles...balochistani refers to the province of origin as Balochistan"'').<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006).">M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006). ''[https://www.buitms.edu.pk/office/research/Journal/B_J_2006/1_Biodiversity%20of%20saurischian%20dinosaurs%20from%20the%20latest%20cretaceous%20park%20of%20pakistan.pdf Biodiversity of Saurischian Dinosaurs from the Latest Cretaceous Park of Pakistan]''. Journal of Applied and Emerging Sciences. 1 (3) 108-140. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191013021726/https://www.buitms.edu.pk/office/research/Journal/B_J_2006/1_Biodiversity%20of%20saurischian%20dinosaurs%20from%20the%20latest%20cretaceous%20park%20of%20pakistan.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. ''[https://www.webcitation.org/5hjMtRzjs?url=http://www.gsp.gov.pk/Malkani%202006b.pdf WebCite Link]''. Retrieved October 13th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Prothero2019">Donald R. Prothero (16 July 2019). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sIl-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT188&dq=%22there+are+primitive+titanosaurs+on+many%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj8s534l5jlAhWbVBUIHSn4BHMQ6AEIKzAA#v=onepage&q=%22there%20are%20primitive%20titanosaurs%20on%20many%22&f=false The Story of the Dinosaurs in 25 Discoveries: Amazing Fossils and the People Who Found Them]''. Columbia University Press. p. 188. ISBN 978-0-231-54646-1.</ref> His discovery was that of a new medium-to-large species of titanosaurs.<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/> Titanosaurs were the most diverse and widespread species of sauropod dinosaurs.<ref name="Novas2009">Fernando E. Novas (2009). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dXYi6j7QQ-YC&pg=PA181&dq=Titanosauria+are&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiu-7GOk5jlAhULUhUIHU5vDtMQ6AEIRTAE#v=onepage&q=Titanosauria%20are&f=false The Age of Dinosaurs in South America]''. Indiana University Press. p. 181. ISBN 0-253-35289-4.</ref> The specimens can be found at the ''"Museum of Geological Survey of Pakistan"'', in Quetta, Balochistan.<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/> It is one of 11 species of sauropoda to have been discovered on the Indian subcontinent (interestingly 5 of the 11 have been discovered by Malkani alone).<ref name="WilsonBarrett2011">Wilson, Jeffrey A.; Barrett, Paul M.; Carrano, Matthew T. (2011). ''"[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1475-4983.2011.01087.x An associated partial skeleton of Jainosaurus cf. septentrionalis (Dinosauria: Sauropoda) from the Late Cretaceous of Chhota Simla, Central India]"''. Palaeontology. 54 (5): 981–998. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2011.01087.x. ISSN 0031-0239.</ref>

[[File:Vitakridrinda sulaimani by teratophoneus-d5rcjak f7ef.jpg|thumb|right|180px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">An artists rendition of ''Vitakridrinda sulaimani'', a carnivorous predator found in the Balochistan region, by Robinson Kunz (2013). It's name comes from Urdu and Seraiki (M. S. Malkani).</div>]]
*'''''Samanadrinda surghari'''''—In 2007,<ref name="M. S. Malkani (2007).">M. S. Malkani (2007). ''Trackways evidence of a sauropod dinosaurs confronted by a theropod found from Middle Jurassic Samana Suk Limestone of Pakistan''. Sindh University Research Journal (Science Series). 39(1):1-14. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref><ref name="reptilia">''[http://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?a=checkTaxonInfo&taxon_no=120845&is_real_user=0 Samanadrinda surghari Reptilia -]''. Paleobiology Database Guest Menu. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014001440/http://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?a=checkTaxonInfo&taxon_no=120845&is_real_user=0 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref> a new dinosaur species called ''"Samanadrinda surghari"'' (etymologically "''Samana...the geological formation of the site, Drinda means beast in Urdu and Saraiki language while Surghari is dedicated to the name of Surghar range which hosts the area"''<ref name="Suhail Yusuf (April 2nd, 2011).">Suhail Yusuf (April 2nd, 2011). ''[https://www.dawn.com/news/617762 Rare dinosaur footprints in Pakistan]''. Dawn. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191013235450/https://www.dawn.com/news/617762 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref>) was discovered at Baroch Nala, Malakhel,<ref name="fossilworkssaman">''[http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=120844 Samanadrinda Malkani 2007 (ceratosaur) PaleoDB taxon number: 120844]''. Fossil Works. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014000833/http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=120844 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref> by M. S. Malkani (19??—Present) ''"which was a larged-body beast resembling the famous tyrannosaurs...but with smaller teeth"''.<ref name="Suhail Yusuf (April 2nd, 2011)."/> It was 10—12 ft. tall, weighing 8—10 tons.<ref name="Suhail Yusuf (April 2nd, 2011)."/> Other sources however claim it was 8.1 meters tall and weighed 860 kg, although the same source which claims this also erroneously calls Pakistan ''"Hindustan"'' for some bizarre reason).<ref name="Molina-PérezLarramendi20192">Rubén Molina-Pérez; Asier Larramendi; David Connolly (25 June 2019). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5m-KDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA132&lpg=PA132&dq=Samanadrinda+surghari&source=bl&ots=yxVgJFszZF&sig=ACfU3U2GgKqKoWEbWnMaDY0L9s9OW9oTmA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj59cSotprlAhWHRxUIHagHCFAQ6AEwCHoECAgQAQ#v=onepage&q=Samanadrinda%20surghari&f=false Dinosaur Facts and Figures: The Theropods and Other Dinosauriformes]''. Princeton University Press. p. 132. ISBN 978-0-691-18031-1.</ref>

*'''''Sulaimanisaurus gingerichi'''''—In 2004,<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/><ref name="WilsonBarrett2011"/> M. S. Malkani (19??—Present) was the first to discover a new species of dinosaur, which he had the honour of naming ''"[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulaimanisaurus Sulaimanisaurus gingerichi]"'' (etymologically ''"from Sulaiman foldbelt, which is the host mountain range...saurus means reptiles...gingerichi, honoring...Philip D. Gingerich"'').<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/> It belongs to the ''titanosaurs'' group.<ref name="Prothero2019"/> Titanosaurs were the most diverse and widespread species of sauropod dinosaurs.<ref name="Novas2009"/> The specimens can be found at the ''"Museum of Geological Survey of Pakistan"'', in Quetta.<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/> It is one of 11 species of sauropoda to have been discovered on the Indian subcontinent (interestingly 5 of the 11 have been discovered by Malkani alone).<ref name="WilsonBarrett2011"/>

*'''''Vitakridrinda sulaimani'''''—In 2004,<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/> M. S. Malkani (19??—Present) was the first to discover a new species of dinosaur, which he had the honour of naming ''"[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitakridrinda Vitakridrinda sulaimani]"'' (etymologically ''"Vitakri, honoring the dinosaurs’ type locality; drinda Urdu and Seraiki word means beast...sulaimani, after the name of Sulaiman foldbelt"'').<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/> It belongs to the ''abelisaurids'' dinosaur group. Abelisaurids were ''"the best represented group of predatory dinosaurs from the Cretaceous deposits in both number of specimens and species diversity"''.<ref name="CurriePadian1997">Philip J. Currie; Kevin Padian (6 October 1997). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7t9M5TsmjOUC&pg=PA1&dq=%22Abelisaurids+are%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwihk8Pox5jlAhV2RhUIHXVLDCIQ6AEIPjAD#v=onepage&q=%22Abelisaurids%20are%22&f=false Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs]''. Elsevier. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-08-049474-6.</ref> The specimens can be found at the ''"Museum of Geological Survey of Pakistan"'', in Quetta, Balochistan.<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/> Since the first discovery, at least 5 more ''"collections"'' have been found.<ref name="vsulei">''[http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=119560 †Vitakridrinda sulaimani Malkani 2004 (ceratosaur) PaleoDB taxon number: 119560]''. Fossil Works. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191013064040/http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=119560 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 13th, 2019.</ref><ref name="vsuleispecies">''[http://dinosaurpictures.org/Vitakridrinda-pictures Vitakridrinda pictures and facts]''. Dinosaur Pictures. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191013064447/http://dinosaurpictures.org/Vitakridrinda-pictures WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 13th, 2019.</ref>

[[File:12122538_1508572259435815_5703662332258312795_n.jpg|thumb|left|140px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:70%;">Strepsirrhine primates once existed in ancient Pakistan.</div>]]
:::::::*'''''Vitakrisaurus saraiki'''''—Weighing 5.3 kg, ''"[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitakrisaurus Vitakrisaurus saraiki]"'' (etymologically, honouring the ''"the Vitakri host locality; saurus means lizard...[s]pecies name is in honor of the Saraiki language of locals of Sulaiman Range"''<ref name="Malkani2019">Malkani, Muhammad Sadiq (2019). ''"[http://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation.aspx?paperid=95289 Vitakrisaurus saraiki< Theropod from South Asia]"''. Open Journal of Geology. 09 (10): 643–645. doi:10.4236/ojg.2019.910063. ISSN 2161-7570.</ref>) was a small dinosaur about 1.55 meters tall, and 0.42 meters wide.<ref name="Molina-PérezLarramendi2019">Rubén Molina-Pérez; Asier Larramendi; David Connolly (25 June 2019). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5m-KDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA255&dq=Vitakrisaurus+saraiki&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwin8tKtwZjlAhXjXRUIHeKRApAQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q=Vitakrisaurus%20saraiki&f=false Dinosaur Facts and Figures: The Theropods and Other Dinosauriformes]''. Princeton University Press. p. 255. ISBN 978-0-691-18031-1.</ref> It was first discovered in 2010 by M. S. Malkani (19??—Present).<ref name="Molina-PérezLarramendi2019"/> They are believed to have been small game hunters (or ''"piscivores"'', which are dinosaurs that primarily eat fish<ref name="FeldhamerDrickamer2007">George A. Feldhamer; Lee C. Drickamer; Stephen H. Vessey (7 September 2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=udCnKce9hfoC&pg=PA126&dq=%22piscivorous%22+meaning&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjg08f7o5rlAhXWThUIHc9UDGkQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q=%22piscivorous%22%20meaning&f=false Mammalogy: Adaptation, Diversity, Ecology]''. JHU Press. p. 126. ISBN 978-0-8018-8695-9.</ref>).<ref name="Molina-PérezLarramendi2019"/> Despite its small size, it has been classified as a ''"Medium Sized Theropod of South Asia"''.<ref name="Malkani2019"/> It is one of two therapods discovered in Pakistan so far.<ref name="Malkani2019"/> The fossils can be found in the ''"Museum of Geological Survey of Pakistan"'', Quetta.<ref name="Malkani2019"/>

:::::::*'''''Bugtilemur mathesoni'''''—In 2001, a collaborative project between Pakistani, French, Thai and Mexican scientists, discovered an ancient species of lemur in ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bugti_Hills Bugti hills]'', Pakistan, called ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bugtilemur Bugtilemur mathesoni]''.<ref name="sciencedailylemur">''[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2001/10/011019075135.htm Earliest Evidence Of Lemurs Discovered In Pakistan, Far From Their Current Home, Science Reports]''. October 22nd, 2001. Science Daily. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191017091030/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2001/10/011019075135.htm WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 17th, 2019.</ref> Ibrahim M. Baloch (19??—Present) of the University of Balochistan represented Pakistan, who found ''"handful of tiny teeth"'' that lead to the discovery that lemurs (''strepsirrhine primates'') once existed in Pakistan.<ref name="sciencedailylemur"/> It is the earliest known lemur species to have ever been found, dating back to at least 30 million years.<ref name="sciencedailylemur"/> The fossil "''was recovered from a site teaming with...fossil specimens...[f]ossilized tree parts, pollen, and fruit indicate that Bugtilemur lived in an environment that...resembled a...tropical forest"''.<ref name="sciencedailylemur"/>
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'''[[#Astronomy & Universe (4)|Astronomy]]''' •
'''[[#Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)|Agriculture, Food & Beverage]]''' •
'''[[#Biology (2)|Biology]]''' (''[[#Paleontology (10)|Paleontology]]'') •
'''[[#Chemistry (5)|Chemistry]]''' •
'''[[#Computing (4)|Computing]]''' (''[[#Video-gaming (1)|Video-gaming]] • [[#Board Games (1)|Board-games]]'') •
'''[[#Mathematics (3)|Mathematics]]''' •
'''[[#Medicines (1)|Medicine]]''' (''[[#Disease Eradication (1)|Disease Eradication]]'' • ''[[#Genetics & Disease (5)|Genetics & Disease]]'' • ''[[#Medical Instruments (6)|Instruments]]'') •
'''[[#Physics (5)|Physics]]''' •
'''Engineering''' (''[[#Naval Engineering (1)|Naval]]'' • ''[[#Mechanical Engineering (7)|Mechanical]]'' • ''[[#Handtool Engineering (3)|Handtool]]'' • ''[[#Textile Engineering (3)|Textile]]'' (''[[#Clothing (2)|Clothing]]'') • ''[[#Architectural Engineering (4)|Architectural]]'') •
'''[[#Sport & Recreation (2)|Sport & Recreation]]''' •
'''[[#Disputed (2)|Disputed]]''' •
[[#Further Reading|Further Reading]] •
[[#Sources|Sources]] •
(''[[#Footnotes|Footnotes]]'' • ''[[#References|References]]'' • ''[[#Acknowledgements|Acknowledgements]]'') •
[[#External Links|External Links]] •
'''''Total Inventions & Discoveries Listed: 77'''''
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete.
[[File:Lavocatisaurus agrioensis-novataxa 2018-Canudo Carballido Garrido et Salgado--paleoArt-Gabriel Lio.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:70%;">Titanosaurs and their bones. Note the vertebrae which are used to distinguish species of titanosauria.</div>]]

*'''''Balochisaurus malkani'''''—In 2004,<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/><ref name="WilsonBarrett2011"/> M. S. Malkani (19??—Present) was the first to discover a new species of dinosaur, which he named ''"[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balochisaurus Balochisaurus Malkani]"'' (etymologically ''"Balochi, honoring the Baloch tribes of Pakistan, as they host the Kachi Bohri locality from Central Sulaiman Range; saurus means reptiles"'', and ''"Malkani"'' named eponymously).<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/><ref name="WilsonBarrett2011"/> It belongs to the ''titanosaurs'' dinosaur group.<ref name="Prothero2019"/> Titanosaurs were the most diverse and widespread species of sauropod dinosaurs.<ref name="Novas2009"/> The specimens can be found at the ''"Museum of Geological Survey of Pakistan"'', in Quetta, Balochistan.<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/> It is one of 11 species of sauropoda to have been discovered on the subcontinent (interestingly 5 of the 11 have been discovered by Malkani alone).<ref name="WilsonBarrett2011"/>

*'''''Khetranisaurus barkhani'''''—In 2004,<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/><ref name="WilsonBarrett2011"/> M. S. Malkani (19??—Present) was the first to discover a new species of dinosaur, which he had the honour of naming ''"[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khetranisaurus Khetranisaurus barkhani]"'' (etymologically ''"Khetrani, honoring the Khetran tribe of Barkhan district; saurus means reptiles...barkhani, honoring the Barkhan which is the host District of dinosaurs"'').<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/> It belongs to the ''titanosaurs'' dinosaur group.<ref name="Prothero2019"/> Titanosaurs were the most diverse and widespread species of sauropod dinosaurs.<ref name="Novas2009"/> The specimens can be found at the ''"Museum of Geological Survey of Pakistan"'', in Quetta, Balochistan.<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/> It is one of 11 species of sauropoda to have been discovered on the Indian subcontinent (interestingly 5 of the 11 have been discovered by Malkani alone).<ref name="WilsonBarrett2011"/>

*'''''Malakhelisaurus mianwali'''''—In 2007, a new species of dinosaur was discovered by M. S. Malkani (19??—Present) called ''"[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malakhelisaurus Malakhelisaurus mianwali]"'' (etymologically from ''"Malakhel...the name of the area; Saurus is for reptile and Mianwali...the host district of the site"'',<ref name="Suhail Yusuf (April 2nd, 2011)."/> it was previously known as ''"Malasaurus"'').<ref name="M. S. Malkani (2007)."/><ref name="fossilworksmianwali">''[http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?action=taxonInfo&taxon_no=197545 †Malakhelisaurus mianwali Malkani 2007 (Malakhel lizard) PaleoDB taxon number: 197545]''. Fossil Works. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014073246/http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?action=taxonInfo&taxon_no=197545 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref> It was a close relation of the largest herbivore titanosaurian sauropods.<ref name="Suhail Yusuf (April 2nd, 2011)."/> The distinguishing features were that it had a ''"huge body, small head and fat neck with pillar-like legs"'', which ''"was 30 feet long and almost 10 to 15 feet high"'', and ''"weigh[ing] more than 30 tones"''.<ref name="Suhail Yusuf (April 2nd, 2011)."/><ref group="n.">For images of the dinosaur see this;
#''[https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Malakhelisaurus-mianwali-based-on-tracks-or-Gspsaurus-pakistani-medium-sized-stocky-more_fig10_331150025 Malakhelisaurus mianwali based on tracks or Gspsaurus pakistani medium sized stocky more derived titanosaur based on bone fossils model; 3-D Model of Zhob ichnite managed by Mr. Nicholas Allen-a British Journalist and Malakhelisaurus mianwali prepared by Dr. Dmitry Bogdanov-a Cardiologist in Chelyabinsk Russia and also a paleoartist https://dibgd.deviant art.com. 3 D modal of Zhob tracks is compositely prepared by Factum Arte, Factum Foundation, London, UK after getting more than 11000 images (Nicholas Allen 2018)]''. Research Gate. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014073918/https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Malakhelisaurus-mianwali-based-on-tracks-or-Gspsaurus-pakistani-medium-sized-stocky-more_fig10_331150025 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref> It was discovered when paleontologists found footprints carved into rock, ''"a print of nearly one meter in moist clay or on wet muddy surface"''.<ref name="Suhail Yusuf (April 2nd, 2011)."/>

[[File:Titanosaur.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:70%;">Titanosaur size.</div>]]

*'''''Marisaurus jeffi'''''—In 2003,<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/><ref name="WilsonBarrett2011"/> M. S. Malkani (19??—Present) was the first to discover a new species of dinosaur, which he had the honour of naming ''"[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marisaurus Marisaurus jeffi]"'' (etymologically ''"Mari, honoring the Mari tribes Bohri locality from Central Sulaiman Range; saurus means reptiles. The species specific epithet jeffi, honoring the Dr Jeffery A. Wilson"'').<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/><ref name="WilsonBarrett2011"/> It belongs to the ''titanosaurs'' dinosaur group.<ref name="Prothero2019"/> Titanosaurs were the most diverse and widespread species of sauropod dinosaurs.<ref name="Novas2009"/> The specimens can be found at the ''"Museum of Geological Survey of Pakistan"'', in Quetta, Balochistan.<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/> It is one of 11 species of sauropoda to have been discovered on the Indian subcontinent (interestingly 5 of the 11 have been discovered by Malkani alone).<ref name="WilsonBarrett2011"/>

*'''''Pakisaurus balochistani'''''—In 2004,<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/><ref name="WilsonBarrett2011"/> M. S. Malkani (19??—Present) was the first to discover a new species of dinosaur, which he had the honour of naming ''"[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakisaurus Pakisaurus balochistani]"'' (etymologically ''"Paki, from Pakistan, which is the country of origin; saurus means reptiles...balochistani refers to the province of origin as Balochistan"'').<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006).">M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006). ''[https://www.buitms.edu.pk/office/research/Journal/B_J_2006/1_Biodiversity%20of%20saurischian%20dinosaurs%20from%20the%20latest%20cretaceous%20park%20of%20pakistan.pdf Biodiversity of Saurischian Dinosaurs from the Latest Cretaceous Park of Pakistan]''. Journal of Applied and Emerging Sciences. 1 (3) 108-140. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191013021726/https://www.buitms.edu.pk/office/research/Journal/B_J_2006/1_Biodiversity%20of%20saurischian%20dinosaurs%20from%20the%20latest%20cretaceous%20park%20of%20pakistan.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. ''[https://www.webcitation.org/5hjMtRzjs?url=http://www.gsp.gov.pk/Malkani%202006b.pdf WebCite Link]''. Retrieved October 13th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Prothero2019">Donald R. Prothero (16 July 2019). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sIl-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT188&dq=%22there+are+primitive+titanosaurs+on+many%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj8s534l5jlAhWbVBUIHSn4BHMQ6AEIKzAA#v=onepage&q=%22there%20are%20primitive%20titanosaurs%20on%20many%22&f=false The Story of the Dinosaurs in 25 Discoveries: Amazing Fossils and the People Who Found Them]''. Columbia University Press. p. 188. ISBN 978-0-231-54646-1.</ref> His discovery was that of a new medium-to-large species of titanosaurs.<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/> Titanosaurs were the most diverse and widespread species of sauropod dinosaurs.<ref name="Novas2009">Fernando E. Novas (2009). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dXYi6j7QQ-YC&pg=PA181&dq=Titanosauria+are&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiu-7GOk5jlAhULUhUIHU5vDtMQ6AEIRTAE#v=onepage&q=Titanosauria%20are&f=false The Age of Dinosaurs in South America]''. Indiana University Press. p. 181. ISBN 0-253-35289-4.</ref> The specimens can be found at the ''"Museum of Geological Survey of Pakistan"'', in Quetta, Balochistan.<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/> It is one of 11 species of sauropoda to have been discovered on the Indian subcontinent (interestingly 5 of the 11 have been discovered by Malkani alone).<ref name="WilsonBarrett2011">Wilson, Jeffrey A.; Barrett, Paul M.; Carrano, Matthew T. (2011). ''"[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1475-4983.2011.01087.x An associated partial skeleton of Jainosaurus cf. septentrionalis (Dinosauria: Sauropoda) from the Late Cretaceous of Chhota Simla, Central India]"''. Palaeontology. 54 (5): 981–998. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2011.01087.x. ISSN 0031-0239.</ref>

[[File:Vitakridrinda sulaimani by teratophoneus-d5rcjak f7ef.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">An artists rendition of ''Vitakridrinda sulaimani'', a carnivorous predator found in the Balochistan region, by Robinson Kunz (2013). It's name comes from Urdu and Seraiki (M. S. Malkani).</div>]]
*'''''Samanadrinda surghari'''''—In 2007,<ref name="M. S. Malkani (2007).">M. S. Malkani (2007). ''Trackways evidence of a sauropod dinosaurs confronted by a theropod found from Middle Jurassic Samana Suk Limestone of Pakistan''. Sindh University Research Journal (Science Series). 39(1):1-14. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref><ref name="reptilia">''[http://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?a=checkTaxonInfo&taxon_no=120845&is_real_user=0 Samanadrinda surghari Reptilia -]''. Paleobiology Database Guest Menu. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014001440/http://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?a=checkTaxonInfo&taxon_no=120845&is_real_user=0 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref> a new dinosaur species called ''"Samanadrinda surghari"'' (etymologically "''Samana...the geological formation of the site, Drinda means beast in Urdu and Saraiki language while Surghari is dedicated to the name of Surghar range which hosts the area"''<ref name="Suhail Yusuf (April 2nd, 2011).">Suhail Yusuf (April 2nd, 2011). ''[https://www.dawn.com/news/617762 Rare dinosaur footprints in Pakistan]''. Dawn. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191013235450/https://www.dawn.com/news/617762 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref>) was discovered at Baroch Nala, Malakhel,<ref name="fossilworkssaman">''[http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=120844 Samanadrinda Malkani 2007 (ceratosaur) PaleoDB taxon number: 120844]''. Fossil Works. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014000833/http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=120844 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 14th, 2019.</ref> by M. S. Malkani (19??—Present) ''"which was a larged-body beast resembling the famous tyrannosaurs...but with smaller teeth"''.<ref name="Suhail Yusuf (April 2nd, 2011)."/> It was 10—12 ft. tall, weighing 8—10 tons.<ref name="Suhail Yusuf (April 2nd, 2011)."/> Other sources however claim it was 8.1 meters tall and weighed 860 kg, although the same source which claims this also erroneously calls Pakistan ''"Hindustan"'' for some bizarre reason).<ref name="Molina-PérezLarramendi20192">Rubén Molina-Pérez; Asier Larramendi; David Connolly (25 June 2019). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5m-KDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA132&lpg=PA132&dq=Samanadrinda+surghari&source=bl&ots=yxVgJFszZF&sig=ACfU3U2GgKqKoWEbWnMaDY0L9s9OW9oTmA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj59cSotprlAhWHRxUIHagHCFAQ6AEwCHoECAgQAQ#v=onepage&q=Samanadrinda%20surghari&f=false Dinosaur Facts and Figures: The Theropods and Other Dinosauriformes]''. Princeton University Press. p. 132. ISBN 978-0-691-18031-1.</ref>

*'''''Sulaimanisaurus gingerichi'''''—In 2004,<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/><ref name="WilsonBarrett2011"/> M. S. Malkani (19??—Present) was the first to discover a new species of dinosaur, which he had the honour of naming ''"[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulaimanisaurus Sulaimanisaurus gingerichi]"'' (etymologically ''"from Sulaiman foldbelt, which is the host mountain range...saurus means reptiles...gingerichi, honoring...Philip D. Gingerich"'').<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/> It belongs to the ''titanosaurs'' group.<ref name="Prothero2019"/> Titanosaurs were the most diverse and widespread species of sauropod dinosaurs.<ref name="Novas2009"/> The specimens can be found at the ''"Museum of Geological Survey of Pakistan"'', in Quetta.<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/> It is one of 11 species of sauropoda to have been discovered on the Indian subcontinent (interestingly 5 of the 11 have been discovered by Malkani alone).<ref name="WilsonBarrett2011"/>

*'''''Vitakridrinda sulaimani'''''—In 2004,<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/> M. S. Malkani (19??—Present) was the first to discover a new species of dinosaur, which he had the honour of naming ''"[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitakridrinda Vitakridrinda sulaimani]"'' (etymologically ''"Vitakri, honoring the dinosaurs’ type locality; drinda Urdu and Seraiki word means beast...sulaimani, after the name of Sulaiman foldbelt"'').<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/> It belongs to the ''abelisaurids'' dinosaur group. Abelisaurids were ''"the best represented group of predatory dinosaurs from the Cretaceous deposits in both number of specimens and species diversity"''.<ref name="CurriePadian1997">Philip J. Currie; Kevin Padian (6 October 1997). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7t9M5TsmjOUC&pg=PA1&dq=%22Abelisaurids+are%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwihk8Pox5jlAhV2RhUIHXVLDCIQ6AEIPjAD#v=onepage&q=%22Abelisaurids%20are%22&f=false Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs]''. Elsevier. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-08-049474-6.</ref> The specimens can be found at the ''"Museum of Geological Survey of Pakistan"'', in Quetta, Balochistan.<ref name="M. Sadiq Malkani (April 2006)."/> Since the first discovery, at least 5 more ''"collections"'' have been found.<ref name="vsulei">''[http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=119560 †Vitakridrinda sulaimani Malkani 2004 (ceratosaur) PaleoDB taxon number: 119560]''. Fossil Works. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191013064040/http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=119560 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 13th, 2019.</ref><ref name="vsuleispecies">''[http://dinosaurpictures.org/Vitakridrinda-pictures Vitakridrinda pictures and facts]''. Dinosaur Pictures. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191013064447/http://dinosaurpictures.org/Vitakridrinda-pictures WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 13th, 2019.</ref>

[[File:12122538_1508572259435815_5703662332258312795_n.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:70%;">Strepsirrhine primates once existed in ancient Pakistan.</div>]]
*'''''Vitakrisaurus saraiki'''''—Weighing 5.3 kg, ''"[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitakrisaurus Vitakrisaurus saraiki]"'' (etymologically, honouring the ''"the Vitakri host locality; saurus means lizard...[s]pecies name is in honor of the Saraiki language of locals of Sulaiman Range"''<ref name="Malkani2019">Malkani, Muhammad Sadiq (2019). ''"[http://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation.aspx?paperid=95289 Vitakrisaurus saraiki< Theropod from South Asia]"''. Open Journal of Geology. 09 (10): 643–645. doi:10.4236/ojg.2019.910063. ISSN 2161-7570.</ref>) was a small dinosaur about 1.55 meters tall, and 0.42 meters wide.<ref name="Molina-PérezLarramendi2019">Rubén Molina-Pérez; Asier Larramendi; David Connolly (25 June 2019). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5m-KDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA255&dq=Vitakrisaurus+saraiki&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwin8tKtwZjlAhXjXRUIHeKRApAQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q=Vitakrisaurus%20saraiki&f=false Dinosaur Facts and Figures: The Theropods and Other Dinosauriformes]''. Princeton University Press. p. 255. ISBN 978-0-691-18031-1.</ref> It was first discovered in 2010 by M. S. Malkani (19??—Present).<ref name="Molina-PérezLarramendi2019"/> They are believed to have been small game hunters (or ''"piscivores"'', which are dinosaurs that primarily eat fish<ref name="FeldhamerDrickamer2007">George A. Feldhamer; Lee C. Drickamer; Stephen H. Vessey (7 September 2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=udCnKce9hfoC&pg=PA126&dq=%22piscivorous%22+meaning&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjg08f7o5rlAhXWThUIHc9UDGkQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q=%22piscivorous%22%20meaning&f=false Mammalogy: Adaptation, Diversity, Ecology]''. JHU Press. p. 126. ISBN 978-0-8018-8695-9.</ref>).<ref name="Molina-PérezLarramendi2019"/> Despite its small size, it has been classified as a ''"Medium Sized Theropod of South Asia"''.<ref name="Malkani2019"/> It is one of two therapods discovered in Pakistan so far.<ref name="Malkani2019"/> The fossils can be found in the ''"Museum of Geological Survey of Pakistan"'', Quetta.<ref name="Malkani2019"/>

*'''''Bugtilemur mathesoni'''''—In 2001, a collaborative project between Pakistani, French, Thai and Mexican scientists, discovered an ancient species of lemur in ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bugti_Hills Bugti hills]'', Pakistan, called ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bugtilemur Bugtilemur mathesoni]''.<ref name="sciencedailylemur">''[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2001/10/011019075135.htm Earliest Evidence Of Lemurs Discovered In Pakistan, Far From Their Current Home, Science Reports]''. October 22nd, 2001. Science Daily. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191017091030/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2001/10/011019075135.htm WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 17th, 2019.</ref> Ibrahim M. Baloch (19??—Present) of the University of Balochistan represented Pakistan, who found ''"handful of tiny teeth"'' that lead to the discovery that lemurs (''strepsirrhine primates'') once existed in Pakistan.<ref name="sciencedailylemur"/> It is the earliest known lemur species to have ever been found, dating back to at least 30 million years.<ref name="sciencedailylemur"/> The fossil "''was recovered from a site teaming with...fossil specimens...[f]ossilized tree parts, pollen, and fruit indicate that Bugtilemur lived in an environment that...resembled a...tropical forest"''.<ref name="sciencedailylemur"/>
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===Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)===
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<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">
::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete.''
[[File:47021280 2041665879457105 6125590401752498176 n.jpg|thumb|right|120px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:75%;">Kulfi (ice cream lollies) were invented by the Mughals (1526—1857).</div>]]
* '''Kulfi'''—The kulfi (from ''Persian'', ''"qulfi"''; meaning ''"covered up"''—although not invented by Persians) was first invented in the 16th century (1501—1600) by indigenous Mughal sweet-makers during the reign of the Mughal Empire (1526—1857<ref name="LLC.2010"/>) in the Punjab, Delhi<ref name="Brien2013">Charmaine O' Brien (15 December 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BGhBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT102&dq=mughal+kulfi+invented&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjm3Ojm8bbkAhWzQkEAHQSoBVIQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=mughal%20kulfi%20invented&f=false The Penguin Food Guide to India]''. Penguin Books Limited. p. 102. ISBN 978-93-5118-5</ref> (modern day India).<ref name="Krondl2011">Michael Krondl (2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gN6ySQnUnfwC&pg=PA48&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Sweet Invention: A History of Dessert]''. Chicago Review Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-1-55652-954-2.</ref> The kulfi is an ice cream (lolly), made from dense evaporated milk (the latter of which was already commonly used in South Asia at the time), but with the newly added ingredients of flavoured pistachios, saffron and ice slurry, which was then packed into cones.<ref name="Krondl2011"/> The development of the kulfi coincided when the Mughals discovered how to chill water using saltpeter (which freezes H<sub>2</sub>O molecules).<ref name="Krondl2011"/> Subsequently, the Mughals frequently imported ice and snow from the Himalayas to make it.

*'''Rogan Josh'''—The origin of ''"rogan josh"'' is unclear. Some claim it originated in Persia (with ''"rogan"'' meaning ''"clarified butter"'' and ''"josh"'' meaning hot in Persian).<ref name="Collingham2006">Lizzie Collingham (6 February 2006). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Sr3GUyWe3O0C&pg=PA34&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors]''. Oxford University Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-19-988381-3.</ref> However, the dish is also thought to have its origins from the Kashmiri Muslim ethnic group, who were the first to use a dried plant known as a ''cockscomb'' (or ''maval'')—indigenous to Kashmir—and incorporate this into mutton to create a bright, highly flavoured, red coloured dish (hence giving the dishes name, ''"rogan josh"''; ''"rogan"'' meaning ''"red"'' in Kashmiri).<ref name="Collingham2006"/> Some say the dish is completely indigenous to South Asia, and wasn't one that was imported or adapted from abroad,<ref name="Raina2013">Mohini Qasba Raina (October 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5cXqAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA172&dq=Rogan+Josh+kashmiri+muslim+red&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjQlNKG-LbkAhXuQkEAHfJQD18Q6AEIRjAE#v=onepage&q=Rogan%20Josh%20kashmiri%20muslim%20red&f=false Kashur The Kashmiri Speaking People]''. Trafford Publishing. p. 172. ISBN 978-1-4907-0165-3.</ref> but as has already been stated this isn't clear.<ref name="Collingham2006"/> Hindu Kashmiris also have their own version; not using garlic or onions.<ref name="Collingham2006"/>

[[File:Roof afza pakistan.jpeg|thumb|left|120px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Roof Afza is 114-years-old. It was first invented by H. H. A. Majeed in 1906. Most of his family fled to Pakistan during the 1947 partition, and founded ''"Hamdard (Pakistan)"''.</div>]]
::::::*'''Rooh Afza'''—A drink consisting of a unique mixture of ingredients<ref name="Ernst2002"/><ref name="Panda2013">H. Panda (2 January 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8at9CwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Naqi+Ali+Shah+rooh+afza&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjGnr7PoZDlAhXxnVwKHQsgCUIQ6AEIMzAB#v=onepage&q=rooh%20afza&f=false Handbook on Ayurvedic Medicines with Formulae, Processes & Their Uses (2nd Revised Edition)]''. Niir Project Consultancy Services. p. 3. ISBN 978-93-81039-25-0.</ref> known as ''"Rooh Afza"'' (meaning ''"soothing to the soul"'' in Persian; chosen as the brand name because a character called ''"Rooh Afza"'' featured in the ''"Masnavi Gulzar-e-Nasim"'' (1838<ref name="Das2005">Sisir Kumar Das (2005). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sHklK65TKQ0C&pg=PA480&dq=Daya+Shankar+Kaul+Nasim&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi8oPXlq5DlAhXONcAKHartBL0Q6AEIPjAD#v=onepage&q=Daya%20Shankar%20Kaul%20Nasim&f=false History of Indian Literature]''. Sahitya Akademi. p. 480. ISBN 978-81-7201-006-5.</ref>), a poetry story book, written by Urdu poet P. D. S. Nasim (1811—1843<ref name="GandhiHusain2004">Maneka Gandhi; Ozair Husain (2004). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SSdCL2ZfflIC&pg=PA325&dq=Daya+Shankar+Kaul+Nasim&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi8oPXlq5DlAhXONcAKHartBL0Q6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=Daya%20Shankar%20Kaul%20Nasim&f=false The Complete Book of Muslim and Parsi Names]''. Penguin Books India. p. 325. ISBN 978-0-14-303184-0.</ref>)<ref group="n.">Full name ''Pandit Dia (or Daya) Shankar Nasim''</ref>)—also known as ''"The Original Red Drink"''<ref name="theoriginalreddrink">''[https://www.hamdard.com.pk/consumer_brand/detail/16]''. Hamdard Pakistan. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010000512/https://www.hamdard.com.pk/consumer_brand/detail/16 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref>—was first invented by the Muslim H. H. A. Majeed (1883—1922<ref name="birthdate">''[https://hamdard.com.bd/about/hakim-abdul-majeed/ Hakim Abdul Majeed]''. Hamdard Bangladesh. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191009231508/https://hamdard.com.bd/about/hakim-abdul-majeed/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref><ref name="IANS/New Delhi (May 11th, 2019).">IANS/New Delhi (May 11th, 2019). ''[https://www.khaleejtimes.com/lifestyle/food/legal-dispute-over-hamdards-control-hits-rooh-afza-supply Legal dispute over Hamdard's control hits Rooh Afza supply]''. Khaleej Times. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191009231304/https://www.khaleejtimes.com/lifestyle/food/legal-dispute-over-hamdards-control-hits-rooh-afza-supply WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref>)<ref group="n.">Full name ''Hakim Hafiz Abdul Majeed''.</ref> in 1906 (others say 1907<ref name="Ernst2002">Waltraud Ernst (1 November 2002). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SoaFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT357&dq=%22rooh+afza%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiO1bHjoZDlAhVIasAKHe8tBaIQ6AEIPzAD#v=onepage&q=%22rooh%20afza%22&f=false Plural Medicine, Tradition and Modernity, 1800-2000]''. Routledge. p. 357. ISBN 1-134-73601-0.</ref><ref name="Ananya Barua (May 8th, 2019).">Ananya Barua (May 8th, 2019). ''[https://www.thebetterindia.com/181415/hamdards-rooh-afza-iconic-drink-india-history-partition/ Rooh Afza: How Hamdard’s Ruby-Hued Refresher Became an Indian Summer Staple]''. The Better India. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191009234233/https://www.thebetterindia.com/181415/hamdards-rooh-afza-iconic-drink-india-history-partition/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Sheen2011">Barbara Sheen (10 August 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7n9mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA43&dq=%22rooh+afza%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiO1bHjoZDlAhVIasAKHe8tBaIQ6AEIODAC#v=onepage&q=%22rooh%20afza%22&f=false Foods of Pakistan]''. Greenhaven Publishing LLC. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-7377-6101-6.</ref> or 1908<ref name="IANS/New Delhi (May 11th, 2019)."/>) in Delhi (Punjab), British Raj (1858—1947<ref name="Roe2014">Major Andrew M. Roe (15 August 2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ixhwCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT22&dq=British+Raj+%221858+to+1947%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiUnK3Sr5DlAhWUilwKHVjxA3IQ6AEIZzAJ#v=onepage&q=British%20Raj%20%221858%20to%201947%22&f=false British Governance Of The North-West Frontier (1919 To 1947): A Blueprint For Contemporary Afghanistan?]''. Tannenberg Publishing. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-78289-670-8.</ref><ref name="BalaamDillman2015">David N. Balaam; Bradford Dillman (17 July 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gvIvCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA332&dq=British+Raj+%221858+to+1947%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiUnK3Sr5DlAhWUilwKHVjxA3IQ6AEIWDAH#v=onepage&q=British%20Raj%20%221858%20to%201947%22&f=false Introduction to International Political Economy]''. Routledge. p. 332. ISBN 978-1-317-34730-9.</ref>).<ref name="Ernst2002"/><ref name="Indo-Asian News Service (May 8th, 2019)."/> Annually, 40 million bottles are sold in Pakistan and India combined.
::::::**In 1947, the British Raj split into Pakistan and India, with one of the sons of H. H. A. Majeed, S. H. M. Said<ref group="n.">Full name ''Shaheed Hakim Mohammed Said''</ref> (1920—1998<ref name="said">''[http://www.hamdard.edu.pk/the-founder/ The Founder]''. Hamdard University. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010034323/http://www.hamdard.edu.pk/the-founder/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref>), making the dangerous journey to Pakistan from India on January 9th, 1948.<ref name="IANS (May 8th, 2019)."/> After surviving the [[Muslim, Sikh and Hindu Death Toll in the 1947 Partition|rapacious and murderous Sikh mobs who were wrecking havoc all over the Punjab at the time]], he was finally able to set up production once there (initially ''"in two rented rooms in Karachi's old area of Arambagh, with Rs 12 (Dh0.42) worth of rented furniture"'').<ref name="IANS (May 8th, 2019)."/> It is particularly interesting to note that the entire family of Majeed migrated over to Pakistan, but part of his family chose to remain in India.<ref name="IANS (May 8th, 2019)."/>
::::::**''Hamdard Pakistan'', the makers of Rooh Afza in Pakistan, have further created recipes for incorporating the syrupy drink into many different Pakistani dishes, used as an ingredient well apart from using it as a drink alone. Rooh Afza can be used in Almond Milkshakes, Kashmiri Chai, Chinese Chicken, Butter Rice, Sweet & Sour Chicken Balls, Chatkharaydar Aaloo Chaat, Khatta Meetha Sauce, Cheese Cake, Feerni, Mango Custard and Frozen Yoghurt.<ref name="recipes">''[https://www.hamdard.com.pk/assets/files/61330_1516435126.pdf Rooh Afza Recipes]''. Hamdard Pakistan. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010002654/https://www.hamdard.com.pk/assets/files/61330_1516435126.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref> Every year, annual sales of Rooh Afza amount to a total of 20 million bottles in Pakistan.<ref name="salespakistan">Recorder Report (May 8th, 2019). ''[https://fp.brecorder.com/2019/05/20190508470733/ ROOH AFZA]''. Business Recorder. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010003118/https://fp.brecorder.com/2019/05/20190508470733/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref> ''Hamdard Pakistan'' currently exports their product to at least 25 countries worldwide.<ref name="salespakistan"/> 
::::::**The drink is also ''enormously'' popular in India, with sales exceeding ₹2,000,000,000 Indian rupees<ref name="Samanth Subramanian (April 27th, 2012).">Samanth Subramanian (April 27th, 2012). ''[https://www.thenational.ae/world/asia/rooh-afza-the-syrup-that-sweetens-the-subcontinent-s-summers-1.462271 Rooh Afza, the syrup that sweetens the subcontinent's summers]''. The National. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010003915/https://www.thenational.ae/world/asia/rooh-afza-the-syrup-that-sweetens-the-subcontinent-s-summers-1.462271 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote''': ''"The market for concentrate syrups in India, Mr Rana said, was worth about 4 billion rupees (Dh279 million); Rooh Afza controls just over half of that market."''.
#Samanth Subramanian (April 27th, 2012). ''[https://www.thenational.ae/world/asia/rooh-afza-the-syrup-that-sweetens-the-subcontinent-s-summers-1.462271 Rooh Afza, the syrup that sweetens the subcontinent's summers]''. The National. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010003915/https://www.thenational.ae/world/asia/rooh-afza-the-syrup-that-sweetens-the-subcontinent-s-summers-1.462271 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Mayank Austen Soofi (13th August 2012).">Mayank Austen Soofi (13th August 2012). ''[https://www.livemint.com/Leisure/dRicP6yOXBpHxAY6RYBTiP/1907-Rooh-Afza--Lal-salaam.html 1907 Rooh Afza | Lal salaam]''. Live Mint. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010004227/http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/dRicP6yOXBpHxAY6RYBTiP/1907-Rooh-Afza--Lal-salaam.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"Like any lasting brand, Rooh Afza has passed through moments of anxiety. “There was a drop in sales in the late 1990s and early 2000s, and our share of the throat declined," says Tarundeep Singh Rana, general manager, marketing, Hamdard. “Consumers were taken in by carbonated drinks and the Frootis of the world. Our brand needed to be reinvented and refreshed. We started new campaigns, got (actor) Juhi Chawla as our brand ambassador and established connections with resident welfare associations in cities across north India. Today, our drives have borne fruit. In the ₹ 400 crore market of powdered soft drinks and liquid concentrates, Rooh Afza’s share is 50%.""''.
#Mayank Austen Soofi (13th August 2012). ''[https://www.livemint.com/Leisure/dRicP6yOXBpHxAY6RYBTiP/1907-Rooh-Afza--Lal-salaam.html 1907 Rooh Afza | Lal salaam]''. Live Mint. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010004227/http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/dRicP6yOXBpHxAY6RYBTiP/1907-Rooh-Afza--Lal-salaam.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref> ($28 million USD dollars) per year (sold through 450,000 retailers).<ref name="IANS (May 8th, 2019).">IANS (May 8th, 2019). ''[https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/family-rift-behind-disappearing-rooh-afza-but-company-denies-119050801187_1.html Family rift behind disappearing Rooh Afza, but company denies]''. Business Standard. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191009232054/https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/family-rift-behind-disappearing-rooh-afza-but-company-denies-119050801187_1.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Indo-Asian News Service (May 8th, 2019).">Indo-Asian News Service (May 8th, 2019). ''[https://www.indiatoday.in/business/story/disappearing-rooh-afza-company-denies-family-rift-1520447-2019-05-08]''. India Today. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191009234055/https://www.indiatoday.in/business/story/disappearing-rooh-afza-company-denies-family-rift-1520447-2019-05-08 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref> Similar to Pakistan, sales in India amount to 20 million bottles a year.<ref name="Mayank Austen Soofi (13th August 2012).">Mayank Austen Soofi (13th August 2012). ''[https://www.livemint.com/Leisure/dRicP6yOXBpHxAY6RYBTiP/1907-Rooh-Afza--Lal-salaam.html 1907 Rooh Afza | Lal salaam]''. Live Mint. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010004227/http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/dRicP6yOXBpHxAY6RYBTiP/1907-Rooh-Afza--Lal-salaam.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Nandita Singh (9th May 2019)."/> It is both popular with Muslims, Hindus, Sikhs and other faiths alike.<ref name="Tahir Ibn Manzoor (10th May 2019).">Tahir Ibn Manzoor (10th May 2019). ''[https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/can-a-century-old-beverage-thaw-frosty-india-pakistan-ties-26541 Can a century-old beverage thaw frosty India-Pakistan ties?]''. TRT World. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010005037/https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/can-a-century-old-beverage-thaw-frosty-india-pakistan-ties-26541 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref> ''Hamdard India'' additionally has a portfolio of 600 other products, 580 of them medicinal,<ref name="Nandita Singh (9th May 2019).">Nandita Singh (9th May 2019). ''[https://theprint.in/india/how-old-delhis-roohafza-became-summer-drink-of-choice-before-going-missing-this-ramzan/233112/ How Old Delhi’s RoohAfza became summer drink of choice before going missing this Ramzan]''. The Print. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010010025/https://theprint.in/india/how-old-delhis-roohafza-became-summer-drink-of-choice-before-going-missing-this-ramzan/233112/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref> and has also set up the ''"Institute of History of Medicine and Medical Research"'' in Delhi in 1970.<ref name="Nandita Singh (9th May 2019)."/> Approximately 40% of Hamdard India's revenue comes from the sale of Roof Afza.<ref name="Ernst2002"/>

[[File:Curry99.jpg.gallery.jpg|thumb|right|200px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">The ''"Shish Mahal"'' (founded in 1964—Present), Glasgow, Scotland, UK; as it appeared in a photo taken in 1979 with a line of customers waiting to be allowed entry.<ref name="Norry Wilson (7th April 2017).">Norry Wilson (7th April 2017). ''[https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/15211047.lost-glasgow-heres-one-super-ali-all-glasgow-loves/ Lost Glasgow: Here's one 'Super Ali' all Glasgow loves]''. Herald Scotland. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191005022232/https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/15211047.lost-glasgow-heres-one-super-ali-all-glasgow-loves/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 5th, 2019.</ref></div>]]
*'''Chicken Tikka Masala'''—Tikka (which are boneless pieces of cooked meat) were originally brought to South Asia by the Mughals.<ref name="XingNg2015">Jun Xing; Pak-sheung Ng (23 October 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gAPOCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA130&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Indigenous Culture, Education and Globalization: Critical Perspectives from Asia]''. Springer. p. 130. ISBN 978-3-662-48159-2.</ref> On the other hand, Chicken Tikka ''Masala'' was invented in Glasgow, Scotland, by Pakistani chef Ali Ahmed Aslam (????—????) in the 1970s.<ref name="Independent Staff (29th December 2016).">Independent Staff (29th December 2016). ''[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/charles-mackintosh-chemist-waterproof-google-doodle-scotland-inventions-innovation-bicycles-a7499911.html From Charles Mackintosh's waterproof to Dolly the sheep: 43 innovations Scotland has given the world]''. The Independent. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191005021133/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/charles-mackintosh-chemist-waterproof-google-doodle-scotland-inventions-innovation-bicycles-a7499911.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 5th, 2019.</ref> More specifically it was invented in 1972; out of necessity rather than through experimentation.<ref name="Peter Ross (25 July 2009).">Peter Ross (25 July 2009). ''[https://www.scotsman.com/news-2-15012/peter-ross-how-mr-ali-curried-favour-with-dish-that-tikkas-all-the-boxes-1-1354826 Peter Ross: How Mr Ali curried favour with dish that tikkas all the boxes]''. The Scotsman. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191006174352/https://www.scotsman.com/news-2-15012/peter-ross-how-mr-ali-curried-favour-with-dish-that-tikkas-all-the-boxes-1-1354826 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 6th, 2019.</ref> He developed the recipe after customers were complaining that the tikka he was giving them was very dry; and so he devised a way to make it more palatable, hence becoming the first to invent it.<ref name="Peter Ross (25 July 2009)."/><ref group="n.">According to ''"The Scotsman"'' newspaper, ''"[Aslam] had been suffering from an ulcer brought on by the stress of working 16-hour days and was soothing his stomach with condensed tomato soup spooned straight from the can. Mr Ali was also, at that time, puzzling over how to make grilled marinated chicken more palatable for customers who found it dry. The soup, he thought, might be very dab. So he mixed it with spices, added it to the chicken, and voila...a phenomenon was born. Now Britons eat 25 million portions of the dish every year, and Mr Ali regrets not owning a patent"''.
#Peter Ross (25 July 2009). ''[https://www.scotsman.com/news-2-15012/peter-ross-how-mr-ali-curried-favour-with-dish-that-tikkas-all-the-boxes-1-1354826 Peter Ross: How Mr Ali curried favour with dish that tikkas all the boxes]''. The Scotsman. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191006174352/https://www.scotsman.com/news-2-15012/peter-ross-how-mr-ali-curried-favour-with-dish-that-tikkas-all-the-boxes-1-1354826 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 6th, 2019.
</ref> 
**The origin of chicken tikka masala has however been disputed, not least by India. However, historians in modern-day India are not really known for their reliability, as they have a ''"rich history"'' of laying claims to a whole host of inventions and discoveries clearly never invented or even discovered by them.<ref name="bbcnewsindiasciencecongress106">''[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-46778879 India scientists dismiss Einstein theories]''. 7th January 2019. BBC News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191005021339/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-46778879 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 5th, 2019.</ref> See these footnotes for more information on a host of claims made by Indian historians and scientists that are outright falsified.<ref group="n.">The BBC has even noted that India ''"has a long tradition of replacing science with myths"'' which has lead to a ''"culture of pseudoscience"''. Some of these claims have touted in India's top national science conferences, such as the ''106th Indian Science Congress''.
*''"[Scientist] Ashu Khosla said that Hindu god Brahma discovered dinosaurs and documented them in ancient Indian scriptures while presenting a research paper at the Indian Science Congress on Sunday"''.
*Another ''"scientist from a university in the southern state of Tamil Nadu told conference attendees that Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein were both wrong and that gravitational waves should be renamed "Narendra Modi Waves"...Dr KJ Krishnan reportedly said Newton failed to "understand gravitational repulsive forces" and Einstein's theories were "misleading""''. 
*The Vice Chancellor of Andhra University ''"G Nageshwar Rao"'' claimed ''"a demon king from the Hindu religious epic, Ramayana, had 24 types of aircraft and a network of landing strips in modern day Sri Lanka"''. 
*''"India's junior education minister Satyapal Singh in 2017 said that aeroplanes were first mentioned in the ancient Hindu epic, Ramayana. He added that the first working plane was invented by an Indian named Shivakar Babuji Talpade eight years before the Wright brothers"''. 
*Additionally, ''"[t]he education minister for the western state of Rajasthan said it was important to "understand the scientific significance" of the cow, claiming it was the only animal in the world to both inhale and exhale oxygen"''. Prime Minister ''"Modi himself set the tone in 2014 with his outlandish claim that cosmetic surgery was practised in India thousands of years ago"''.
#''[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-46778879 India scientists dismiss Einstein theories]''. 7th January 2019. BBC News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191005021339/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-46778879 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 5th, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">Indian scientists and historians have also claimed ''"science is a dwarf in front of astrology"'' and that ''"India conducted nuclear tests more than 100,000 years ago"''.
#''[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-46778879 India scientists dismiss Einstein theories]''. 7th January 2019. BBC News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191005021339/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-46778879 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 5th, 2019.
It should be noted that India did not obtain nuclear weapons until the 20th century, with the first atom bombs having been invented in the US amidst the chaos of World War II (1939—1945; and later used against the Japanese Empire; 1894—1947).
#Mike Mason (2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AXwJAjjDryoC&pg=PA33&dq=Japanese+Empire+%22lasted+from%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjqxqfe4oXlAhUITsAKHUqkA6gQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=Japanese%20Empire%20%22lasted%20from%22&f=false Global Shift: Asia, Africa, and Latin America, 1945-2007]''. McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-7735-4062-0.
#Albert I Berger (5 February 2016). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WGuFCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA130&dq=united+states+%22invented+nuclear+weapons%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjM3Mzb4YXlAhVIXMAKHeuXCj8Q6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=united%20states%20%22invented%20nuclear%20weapons%22&f=false Life and Times of the Atomic Bomb: Nuclear Weapons and the Transformation of Warfare]''. Routledge. p. 130. ISBN 978-1-317-52009-2.
#Carol Berkin; Christopher Miller; Robert Cherny (1 January 2010). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GB3k_j1m1mgC&pg=PA581&dq=US+%22drops+atomic+bombs%22+on+japan&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwirn7TS44XlAhUJT8AKHYwTA8IQ6AEILDAA#v=onepage&q=US%20%22drops%20atomic%20bombs%22%20on%20japan&f=false Making America: A History of the United States, Volume 2: From 1865, Brief]''. Cengage Learning. p. 581. ISBN 0-618-47141-3.
The bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki killed 295,956 people according to 1990 estimates. By contrast, conventional aerial bombing of mainland Japan (excluding Okinawa) killed up to 256,000 (which itself is considered a conservative estimate).
#Norma Field (9 February 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Snhmb_UoTbgC&pg=PA196&dq=death+toll+hiroshima+nagasaki&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjwrr3cgYnlAhWAQUEAHXesB_w4ChDoAQhMMAU#v=onepage&q=death%20toll%20hiroshima%20nagasaki&f=false In the Realm of a Dying Emperor]''. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-307-76100-2.</ref> Crucially, Amit Roy—an Indian investigative journalist—writing on the history of chicken tikka masala found no evidence to suggest that it was actually from India at all; noting it is ''"a dish which does not exist in Indian cuisine"''.<ref name="Peter Grove; Colleen Grove (2008).">Peter Grove; Colleen Grove (2008). ''[http://www.menumagazine.co.uk/book/tikkamasala.html IS IT OR ISN'T IT? (The Chicken Tikka Masala Story)]''. Menu Magazine. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20161127225804/http://www.menumagazine.co.uk/book/tikkamasala.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 5th, 2019.</ref> 
***Thus its ''"Indian origins"'' can at least be discounted.<ref name="Peter Grove; Colleen Grove (2008)."/><ref group="n.">However, this hasn't stopped many Indians from claiming it was invented in India. Some claim that the recipe had been passed down for ''"generations"'' amongst Mughal royal chefs. Others have claimed that the dish was ''"first tasted"'' in 1971 in the Punjab, which makes it ''"not more than 40-50 years old"''. However all of these claims appear vague as they do not seem traceable to any one person; they are thus considered unreliable. Furthermore none of the claimants who dispute the origin of chicken tikka masala from India are actually historians themselves, but, merely chefs or ''"street food experts"''. 
#Dean Nelson; Jalees Andrabi (August 4th, 2009). ''[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/5972643/Chicken-tikka-masala-row-grows-as-Indian-chefs-reprimand-Scottish-MPs-over-culinary-origins.html Chicken tikka masala row grows as Indian chefs reprimand Scottish MPs over culinary origins]''. The Telegraph. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191005020820/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/5972643/Chicken-tikka-masala-row-grows-as-Indian-chefs-reprimand-Scottish-MPs-over-culinary-origins.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 5th, 2019.</ref>
**What is particularly notable is that news sites discussing the invention, including the ''"Culture Trip"'', note that the Pakistani claim appears the ''"the most convincing"'', as the other claims on the origin of its invention remain disputed themselves.<ref name="Tori Chalmers (16th April 2018).">Tori Chalmers (16th April 2018). ''[https://theculturetrip.com/europe/united-kingdom/scotland/articles/a-brief-history-of-chicken-tikka-masala/ A Brief History of Chicken Tikka Masala]''. The Culture Trip. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190717062322/https://theculturetrip.com/europe/united-kingdom/scotland/articles/a-brief-history-of-chicken-tikka-masala/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 5th, 2019.</ref> It is further particularly notable that one of the largest travel publishers, ''"Lonely Planet"'', names the Shish Mahal ''"as the best place of earth to try the dish"'' in ''"The World’s Best Spicy Food"''.<ref name="Gillian Loney (16th April 2018).">Gillian Loney (16th April 2018). ''[https://www.glasgowlive.co.uk/news/history/glasgow-invented-chicken-tikka-masala-12015915 The story of the Glasgow restaurant that claims to have invented chicken tikka masala]''. Glasgow Live. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191005023241/https://www.glasgowlive.co.uk/news/history/glasgow-invented-chicken-tikka-masala-12015915 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 5th, 2019.</ref> 
**The next most credible claim of it's origin is from the British Bengali community. Research by food historians Peter Grove (1942—2016)<ref name="News Desk (2016).">News Desk (2016). ''[https://www.curryculture.co.uk/peter-grove-passed/ OUR TRIBUTE TO PETER GROVE]''. Curry Culture. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191006030918/https://www.curryculture.co.uk/peter-grove-passed/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 6th, 2019.</ref> and Colleen Grove (????—????),<ref name="Sourish Bhattacharyya (31 July 2013).">Sourish Bhattacharyya (31 July 2013). ''[https://www.dailymail.co.uk/indiahome/indianews/article-2382106/FORTUNE-COOKIE-Exploring-mystery-curry-got-name.html FORTUNE COOKIE: Exploring the mystery of how curry got its name]''. Daily Mail. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191006032348/https://www.dailymail.co.uk/indiahome/indianews/article-2382106/FORTUNE-COOKIE-Exploring-mystery-curry-got-name.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 6th, 2019.</ref> conclude that the dish ''"was most certainly invented in Britain, probably by a Bangladeshi chef"''.<ref name="Peter Grove; Colleen Grove (2008)."/>

*'''''New Sindheri Kharbooza'''''—In 2013, ''"Fresh Plaza"'', an industry information based portal in the Netherlands which reports on the latest developments in the fresh produce business,<ref name="freshplaza">''[http://www.fruittradecoach.com/freshplaza.html Fresh Plaza]''. Fruit Trade Coach. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190131090455/http://www.fruittradecoach.com/freshplaza.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref> reported that Pakistani scientists were the first to create a new melon variety called the ''"new sindheri melon"''.<ref name="newsindherimelon">''[https://www.freshplaza.com/article/2112306/pakistan-announce-new-melon-variety/ Pakistan announce new melon variety]''. 20th August 2013. Fresh Plaza. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014115501/https://www.freshplaza.com/article/2112306/pakistan-announce-new-melon-variety/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref> It was developed by the department of ''Plant Breeding and Genetics'' at the ''University of Agriculture, Faisalabad''.<ref name="newsindherimelon"/> The melon was first made public by Asif Ali who is the director of research, innovation and commercialisation at the university.<ref name="newsindherimelon"/> The school itself has a close relationship with the ''"All Pakistan Fruit & Vegetable Exporters, Importers and Merchants Association"'' (PFVA) which funds agricultural PhD programmes at the university.<ref name="newsindherimelon"/>
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'''[[#Astronomy & Universe (4)|Astronomy]]''' •
'''[[#Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)|Agriculture, Food & Beverage]]''' •
'''[[#Biology (2)|Biology]]''' (''[[#Paleontology (10)|Paleontology]]'') •
'''[[#Chemistry (5)|Chemistry]]''' •
'''[[#Computing (4)|Computing]]''' (''[[#Video-gaming (1)|Video-gaming]] • [[#Board Games (1)|Board-games]]'') •
'''[[#Mathematics (3)|Mathematics]]''' •
'''[[#Medicines (1)|Medicine]]''' (''[[#Disease Eradication (1)|Disease Eradication]]'' • ''[[#Genetics & Disease (5)|Genetics & Disease]]'' • ''[[#Medical Instruments (6)|Instruments]]'') •
'''[[#Physics (5)|Physics]]''' •
'''Engineering''' (''[[#Naval Engineering (1)|Naval]]'' • ''[[#Mechanical Engineering (7)|Mechanical]]'' • ''[[#Handtool Engineering (3)|Handtool]]'' • ''[[#Textile Engineering (3)|Textile]]'' (''[[#Clothing (2)|Clothing]]'') • ''[[#Architectural Engineering (4)|Architectural]]'') •
'''[[#Sport & Recreation (2)|Sport & Recreation]]''' •
'''[[#Disputed (2)|Disputed]]''' •
[[#Further Reading|Further Reading]] •
[[#Sources|Sources]] •
(''[[#Footnotes|Footnotes]]'' • ''[[#References|References]]'' • ''[[#Acknowledgements|Acknowledgements]]'') •
[[#External Links|External Links]] •
'''''Total Inventions & Discoveries Listed: 77'''''
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::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete.''
[[File:47021280 2041665879457105 6125590401752498176 n.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:75%;">Kulfi (ice cream lollies) were invented by the Mughals (1526—1857).</div>]]
* '''Kulfi'''—The kulfi (from ''Persian'', ''"qulfi"''; meaning ''"covered up"''—although not invented by Persians) was first invented in the 16th century (1501—1600) by indigenous Mughal sweet-makers during the reign of the Mughal Empire (1526—1857<ref name="LLC.2010"/>) in the Punjab, Delhi<ref name="Brien2013">Charmaine O' Brien (15 December 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BGhBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT102&dq=mughal+kulfi+invented&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjm3Ojm8bbkAhWzQkEAHQSoBVIQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=mughal%20kulfi%20invented&f=false The Penguin Food Guide to India]''. Penguin Books Limited. p. 102. ISBN 978-93-5118-5</ref> (modern day India).<ref name="Krondl2011">Michael Krondl (2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gN6ySQnUnfwC&pg=PA48&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Sweet Invention: A History of Dessert]''. Chicago Review Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-1-55652-954-2.</ref> The kulfi is an ice cream (lolly), made from dense evaporated milk (the latter of which was already commonly used in South Asia at the time), but with the newly added ingredients of flavoured pistachios, saffron and ice slurry, which was then packed into cones.<ref name="Krondl2011"/> The development of the kulfi coincided when the Mughals discovered how to chill water using saltpeter (which freezes H<sub>2</sub>O molecules).<ref name="Krondl2011"/> Subsequently, the Mughals frequently imported ice and snow from the Himalayas to make it.

*'''Rogan Josh'''—The origin of ''"rogan josh"'' is unclear. Some claim it originated in Persia (with ''"rogan"'' meaning ''"clarified butter"'' and ''"josh"'' meaning hot in Persian).<ref name="Collingham2006">Lizzie Collingham (6 February 2006). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Sr3GUyWe3O0C&pg=PA34&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors]''. Oxford University Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-19-988381-3.</ref> However, the dish is also thought to have its origins from the Kashmiri Muslim ethnic group, who were the first to use a dried plant known as a ''cockscomb'' (or ''maval'')—indigenous to Kashmir—and incorporate this into mutton to create a bright, highly flavoured, red coloured dish (hence giving the dishes name, ''"rogan josh"''; ''"rogan"'' meaning ''"red"'' in Kashmiri).<ref name="Collingham2006"/> Some say the dish is completely indigenous to South Asia, and wasn't one that was imported or adapted from abroad,<ref name="Raina2013">Mohini Qasba Raina (October 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5cXqAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA172&dq=Rogan+Josh+kashmiri+muslim+red&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjQlNKG-LbkAhXuQkEAHfJQD18Q6AEIRjAE#v=onepage&q=Rogan%20Josh%20kashmiri%20muslim%20red&f=false Kashur The Kashmiri Speaking People]''. Trafford Publishing. p. 172. ISBN 978-1-4907-0165-3.</ref> but as has already been stated this isn't clear.<ref name="Collingham2006"/> Hindu Kashmiris also have their own version, but unlike the Muslim one, it does not use garlic or onions.<ref name="Collingham2006"/>

[[File:Roof afza pakistan.jpeg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Roof Afza is 114-years-old. It was first invented by H. H. A. Majeed in 1906. Most of his family fled to Pakistan during the 1947 partition, and founded ''"Hamdard (Pakistan)"''.</div>]]
*'''Rooh Afza'''—A drink consisting of a unique mixture of ingredients<ref name="Ernst2002"/><ref name="Panda2013">H. Panda (2 January 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8at9CwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Naqi+Ali+Shah+rooh+afza&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjGnr7PoZDlAhXxnVwKHQsgCUIQ6AEIMzAB#v=onepage&q=rooh%20afza&f=false Handbook on Ayurvedic Medicines with Formulae, Processes & Their Uses (2nd Revised Edition)]''. Niir Project Consultancy Services. p. 3. ISBN 978-93-81039-25-0.</ref> known as ''"Rooh Afza"'' (meaning ''"soothing to the soul"'' in Persian; chosen as the brand name because a character called ''"Rooh Afza"'' featured in the ''"Masnavi Gulzar-e-Nasim"'' (1838<ref name="Das2005">Sisir Kumar Das (2005). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sHklK65TKQ0C&pg=PA480&dq=Daya+Shankar+Kaul+Nasim&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi8oPXlq5DlAhXONcAKHartBL0Q6AEIPjAD#v=onepage&q=Daya%20Shankar%20Kaul%20Nasim&f=false History of Indian Literature]''. Sahitya Akademi. p. 480. ISBN 978-81-7201-006-5.</ref>), a poetry story book, written by Urdu poet P. D. S. Nasim (1811—1843<ref name="GandhiHusain2004">Maneka Gandhi; Ozair Husain (2004). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SSdCL2ZfflIC&pg=PA325&dq=Daya+Shankar+Kaul+Nasim&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi8oPXlq5DlAhXONcAKHartBL0Q6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=Daya%20Shankar%20Kaul%20Nasim&f=false The Complete Book of Muslim and Parsi Names]''. Penguin Books India. p. 325. ISBN 978-0-14-303184-0.</ref>)<ref group="n.">Full name ''Pandit Dia (or Daya) Shankar Nasim''</ref>)—also known as ''"The Original Red Drink"''<ref name="theoriginalreddrink">''[https://www.hamdard.com.pk/consumer_brand/detail/16]''. Hamdard Pakistan. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010000512/https://www.hamdard.com.pk/consumer_brand/detail/16 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref>—was first invented by the Muslim H. H. A. Majeed (1883—1922<ref name="birthdate">''[https://hamdard.com.bd/about/hakim-abdul-majeed/ Hakim Abdul Majeed]''. Hamdard Bangladesh. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191009231508/https://hamdard.com.bd/about/hakim-abdul-majeed/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref><ref name="IANS/New Delhi (May 11th, 2019).">IANS/New Delhi (May 11th, 2019). ''[https://www.khaleejtimes.com/lifestyle/food/legal-dispute-over-hamdards-control-hits-rooh-afza-supply Legal dispute over Hamdard's control hits Rooh Afza supply]''. Khaleej Times. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191009231304/https://www.khaleejtimes.com/lifestyle/food/legal-dispute-over-hamdards-control-hits-rooh-afza-supply WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref>)<ref group="n.">Full name ''Hakim Hafiz Abdul Majeed''.</ref> in 1906 (others say 1907<ref name="Ernst2002">Waltraud Ernst (1 November 2002). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SoaFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT357&dq=%22rooh+afza%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiO1bHjoZDlAhVIasAKHe8tBaIQ6AEIPzAD#v=onepage&q=%22rooh%20afza%22&f=false Plural Medicine, Tradition and Modernity, 1800-2000]''. Routledge. p. 357. ISBN 1-134-73601-0.</ref><ref name="Ananya Barua (May 8th, 2019).">Ananya Barua (May 8th, 2019). ''[https://www.thebetterindia.com/181415/hamdards-rooh-afza-iconic-drink-india-history-partition/ Rooh Afza: How Hamdard’s Ruby-Hued Refresher Became an Indian Summer Staple]''. The Better India. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191009234233/https://www.thebetterindia.com/181415/hamdards-rooh-afza-iconic-drink-india-history-partition/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Sheen2011">Barbara Sheen (10 August 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7n9mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA43&dq=%22rooh+afza%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiO1bHjoZDlAhVIasAKHe8tBaIQ6AEIODAC#v=onepage&q=%22rooh%20afza%22&f=false Foods of Pakistan]''. Greenhaven Publishing LLC. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-7377-6101-6.</ref> or 1908<ref name="IANS/New Delhi (May 11th, 2019)."/>) in Delhi (Punjab), British Raj (1858—1947<ref name="Roe2014">Major Andrew M. Roe (15 August 2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ixhwCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT22&dq=British+Raj+%221858+to+1947%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiUnK3Sr5DlAhWUilwKHVjxA3IQ6AEIZzAJ#v=onepage&q=British%20Raj%20%221858%20to%201947%22&f=false British Governance Of The North-West Frontier (1919 To 1947): A Blueprint For Contemporary Afghanistan?]''. Tannenberg Publishing. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-78289-670-8.</ref><ref name="BalaamDillman2015">David N. Balaam; Bradford Dillman (17 July 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gvIvCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA332&dq=British+Raj+%221858+to+1947%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiUnK3Sr5DlAhWUilwKHVjxA3IQ6AEIWDAH#v=onepage&q=British%20Raj%20%221858%20to%201947%22&f=false Introduction to International Political Economy]''. Routledge. p. 332. ISBN 978-1-317-34730-9.</ref>).<ref name="Ernst2002"/><ref name="Indo-Asian News Service (May 8th, 2019)."/> Annually, 40 million bottles are sold in Pakistan and India combined.
**In 1947, the British Raj split into Pakistan and India, with one of the sons of H. H. A. Majeed, S. H. M. Said<ref group="n.">Full name ''Shaheed Hakim Mohammed Said''</ref> (1920—1998<ref name="said">''[http://www.hamdard.edu.pk/the-founder/ The Founder]''. Hamdard University. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010034323/http://www.hamdard.edu.pk/the-founder/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref>), making the dangerous journey to Pakistan from India on January 9th, 1948.<ref name="IANS (May 8th, 2019)."/> After surviving the [[Muslim, Sikh and Hindu Death Toll in the 1947 Partition|rapacious and murderous Sikh mobs who were wrecking havoc all over the Punjab at the time]], he was finally able to set up production once there (initially ''"in two rented rooms in Karachi's old area of Arambagh, with Rs 12 (Dh0.42) worth of rented furniture"'').<ref name="IANS (May 8th, 2019)."/> It is particularly interesting to note that the entire family of Majeed migrated over to Pakistan, but part of his family chose to remain in India.<ref name="IANS (May 8th, 2019)."/>
**''Hamdard Pakistan'', the makers of Rooh Afza in Pakistan, have further created recipes for incorporating the syrupy drink into many different Pakistani dishes, used as an ingredient well apart from using it as a drink alone. Rooh Afza can be used in Almond Milkshakes, Kashmiri Chai, Chinese Chicken, Butter Rice, Sweet & Sour Chicken Balls, Chatkharaydar Aaloo Chaat, Khatta Meetha Sauce, Cheese Cake, Feerni, Mango Custard and Frozen Yoghurt.<ref name="recipes">''[https://www.hamdard.com.pk/assets/files/61330_1516435126.pdf Rooh Afza Recipes]''. Hamdard Pakistan. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010002654/https://www.hamdard.com.pk/assets/files/61330_1516435126.pdf WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref> Every year, annual sales of Rooh Afza amount to a total of 20 million bottles in Pakistan.<ref name="salespakistan">Recorder Report (May 8th, 2019). ''[https://fp.brecorder.com/2019/05/20190508470733/ ROOH AFZA]''. Business Recorder. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010003118/https://fp.brecorder.com/2019/05/20190508470733/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref> ''Hamdard Pakistan'' currently exports their product to at least 25 countries worldwide.<ref name="salespakistan"/> 
**The drink is also ''enormously'' popular in India, with sales exceeding ₹2,000,000,000 Indian rupees<ref name="Samanth Subramanian (April 27th, 2012).">Samanth Subramanian (April 27th, 2012). ''[https://www.thenational.ae/world/asia/rooh-afza-the-syrup-that-sweetens-the-subcontinent-s-summers-1.462271 Rooh Afza, the syrup that sweetens the subcontinent's summers]''. The National. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010003915/https://www.thenational.ae/world/asia/rooh-afza-the-syrup-that-sweetens-the-subcontinent-s-summers-1.462271 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote''': ''"The market for concentrate syrups in India, Mr Rana said, was worth about 4 billion rupees (Dh279 million); Rooh Afza controls just over half of that market."''.
#Samanth Subramanian (April 27th, 2012). ''[https://www.thenational.ae/world/asia/rooh-afza-the-syrup-that-sweetens-the-subcontinent-s-summers-1.462271 Rooh Afza, the syrup that sweetens the subcontinent's summers]''. The National. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010003915/https://www.thenational.ae/world/asia/rooh-afza-the-syrup-that-sweetens-the-subcontinent-s-summers-1.462271 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Mayank Austen Soofi (13th August 2012).">Mayank Austen Soofi (13th August 2012). ''[https://www.livemint.com/Leisure/dRicP6yOXBpHxAY6RYBTiP/1907-Rooh-Afza--Lal-salaam.html 1907 Rooh Afza | Lal salaam]''. Live Mint. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010004227/http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/dRicP6yOXBpHxAY6RYBTiP/1907-Rooh-Afza--Lal-salaam.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"Like any lasting brand, Rooh Afza has passed through moments of anxiety. “There was a drop in sales in the late 1990s and early 2000s, and our share of the throat declined," says Tarundeep Singh Rana, general manager, marketing, Hamdard. “Consumers were taken in by carbonated drinks and the Frootis of the world. Our brand needed to be reinvented and refreshed. We started new campaigns, got (actor) Juhi Chawla as our brand ambassador and established connections with resident welfare associations in cities across north India. Today, our drives have borne fruit. In the ₹ 400 crore market of powdered soft drinks and liquid concentrates, Rooh Afza’s share is 50%.""''.
#Mayank Austen Soofi (13th August 2012). ''[https://www.livemint.com/Leisure/dRicP6yOXBpHxAY6RYBTiP/1907-Rooh-Afza--Lal-salaam.html 1907 Rooh Afza | Lal salaam]''. Live Mint. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010004227/http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/dRicP6yOXBpHxAY6RYBTiP/1907-Rooh-Afza--Lal-salaam.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref> ($28 million USD dollars) per year (sold through 450,000 retailers).<ref name="IANS (May 8th, 2019).">IANS (May 8th, 2019). ''[https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/family-rift-behind-disappearing-rooh-afza-but-company-denies-119050801187_1.html Family rift behind disappearing Rooh Afza, but company denies]''. Business Standard. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191009232054/https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/family-rift-behind-disappearing-rooh-afza-but-company-denies-119050801187_1.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Indo-Asian News Service (May 8th, 2019).">Indo-Asian News Service (May 8th, 2019). ''[https://www.indiatoday.in/business/story/disappearing-rooh-afza-company-denies-family-rift-1520447-2019-05-08]''. India Today. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191009234055/https://www.indiatoday.in/business/story/disappearing-rooh-afza-company-denies-family-rift-1520447-2019-05-08 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref> Similar to Pakistan, sales in India amount to 20 million bottles a year.<ref name="Mayank Austen Soofi (13th August 2012).">Mayank Austen Soofi (13th August 2012). ''[https://www.livemint.com/Leisure/dRicP6yOXBpHxAY6RYBTiP/1907-Rooh-Afza--Lal-salaam.html 1907 Rooh Afza | Lal salaam]''. Live Mint. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010004227/http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/dRicP6yOXBpHxAY6RYBTiP/1907-Rooh-Afza--Lal-salaam.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref><ref name="Nandita Singh (9th May 2019)."/> It is both popular with Muslims, Hindus, Sikhs and other faiths alike.<ref name="Tahir Ibn Manzoor (10th May 2019).">Tahir Ibn Manzoor (10th May 2019). ''[https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/can-a-century-old-beverage-thaw-frosty-india-pakistan-ties-26541 Can a century-old beverage thaw frosty India-Pakistan ties?]''. TRT World. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010005037/https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/can-a-century-old-beverage-thaw-frosty-india-pakistan-ties-26541 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref> ''Hamdard India'' additionally has a portfolio of 600 other products, 580 of them medicinal,<ref name="Nandita Singh (9th May 2019).">Nandita Singh (9th May 2019). ''[https://theprint.in/india/how-old-delhis-roohafza-became-summer-drink-of-choice-before-going-missing-this-ramzan/233112/ How Old Delhi’s RoohAfza became summer drink of choice before going missing this Ramzan]''. The Print. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191010010025/https://theprint.in/india/how-old-delhis-roohafza-became-summer-drink-of-choice-before-going-missing-this-ramzan/233112/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 10th, 2019.</ref> and has also set up the ''"Institute of History of Medicine and Medical Research"'' in Delhi in 1970.<ref name="Nandita Singh (9th May 2019)."/> Approximately 40% of Hamdard India's revenue comes from the sale of Roof Afza.<ref name="Ernst2002"/>

[[File:Curry99.jpg.gallery.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">The ''"Shish Mahal"'' (founded in 1964—Present), Glasgow, Scotland, UK; as it appeared in a photo taken in 1979 with a line of customers waiting to be allowed entry.<ref name="Norry Wilson (7th April 2017).">Norry Wilson (7th April 2017). ''[https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/15211047.lost-glasgow-heres-one-super-ali-all-glasgow-loves/ Lost Glasgow: Here's one 'Super Ali' all Glasgow loves]''. Herald Scotland. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191005022232/https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/15211047.lost-glasgow-heres-one-super-ali-all-glasgow-loves/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 5th, 2019.</ref></div>]]
*'''Chicken Tikka Masala'''—Tikka (which are boneless pieces of cooked meat) were originally brought to South Asia by the Mughals.<ref name="XingNg2015">Jun Xing; Pak-sheung Ng (23 October 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gAPOCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA130&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Indigenous Culture, Education and Globalization: Critical Perspectives from Asia]''. Springer. p. 130. ISBN 978-3-662-48159-2.</ref> On the other hand, Chicken Tikka ''Masala'' was invented in Glasgow, Scotland, by Pakistani chef Ali Ahmed Aslam (????—????) in the 1970s.<ref name="Independent Staff (29th December 2016).">Independent Staff (29th December 2016). ''[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/charles-mackintosh-chemist-waterproof-google-doodle-scotland-inventions-innovation-bicycles-a7499911.html From Charles Mackintosh's waterproof to Dolly the sheep: 43 innovations Scotland has given the world]''. The Independent. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191005021133/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/charles-mackintosh-chemist-waterproof-google-doodle-scotland-inventions-innovation-bicycles-a7499911.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 5th, 2019.</ref> More specifically it was invented in 1972; out of necessity rather than through experimentation.<ref name="Peter Ross (25 July 2009).">Peter Ross (25 July 2009). ''[https://www.scotsman.com/news-2-15012/peter-ross-how-mr-ali-curried-favour-with-dish-that-tikkas-all-the-boxes-1-1354826 Peter Ross: How Mr Ali curried favour with dish that tikkas all the boxes]''. The Scotsman. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191006174352/https://www.scotsman.com/news-2-15012/peter-ross-how-mr-ali-curried-favour-with-dish-that-tikkas-all-the-boxes-1-1354826 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 6th, 2019.</ref> He developed the recipe after customers were complaining that the tikka he was giving them was very dry; and so he devised a way to make it more palatable, hence becoming the first to invent it.<ref name="Peter Ross (25 July 2009)."/><ref group="n.">According to ''"The Scotsman"'' newspaper, ''"[Aslam] had been suffering from an ulcer brought on by the stress of working 16-hour days and was soothing his stomach with condensed tomato soup spooned straight from the can. Mr Ali was also, at that time, puzzling over how to make grilled marinated chicken more palatable for customers who found it dry. The soup, he thought, might be very dab. So he mixed it with spices, added it to the chicken, and voila...a phenomenon was born. Now Britons eat 25 million portions of the dish every year, and Mr Ali regrets not owning a patent"''.
#Peter Ross (25 July 2009). ''[https://www.scotsman.com/news-2-15012/peter-ross-how-mr-ali-curried-favour-with-dish-that-tikkas-all-the-boxes-1-1354826 Peter Ross: How Mr Ali curried favour with dish that tikkas all the boxes]''. The Scotsman. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191006174352/https://www.scotsman.com/news-2-15012/peter-ross-how-mr-ali-curried-favour-with-dish-that-tikkas-all-the-boxes-1-1354826 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 6th, 2019.
</ref> 
**The origin of chicken tikka masala has however been disputed, not least by India. However, historians in modern-day India are not really known for their reliability, as they have a ''"rich history"'' of laying claims to a whole host of inventions and discoveries clearly never invented or even discovered by them.<ref name="bbcnewsindiasciencecongress106">''[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-46778879 India scientists dismiss Einstein theories]''. 7th January 2019. BBC News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191005021339/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-46778879 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 5th, 2019.</ref> See these footnotes for more information on a host of claims made by Indian historians and scientists that are outright falsified.<ref group="n.">The BBC has even noted that India ''"has a long tradition of replacing science with myths"'' which has lead to a ''"culture of pseudoscience"''. Some of these claims have touted in India's top national science conferences, such as the ''106th Indian Science Congress''.
*''"[Scientist] Ashu Khosla said that Hindu god Brahma discovered dinosaurs and documented them in ancient Indian scriptures while presenting a research paper at the Indian Science Congress on Sunday"''.
*Another ''"scientist from a university in the southern state of Tamil Nadu told conference attendees that Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein were both wrong and that gravitational waves should be renamed "Narendra Modi Waves"...Dr KJ Krishnan reportedly said Newton failed to "understand gravitational repulsive forces" and Einstein's theories were "misleading""''. 
*The Vice Chancellor of Andhra University ''"G Nageshwar Rao"'' claimed ''"a demon king from the Hindu religious epic, Ramayana, had 24 types of aircraft and a network of landing strips in modern day Sri Lanka"''. 
*''"India's junior education minister Satyapal Singh in 2017 said that aeroplanes were first mentioned in the ancient Hindu epic, Ramayana. He added that the first working plane was invented by an Indian named Shivakar Babuji Talpade eight years before the Wright brothers"''. 
*Additionally, ''"[t]he education minister for the western state of Rajasthan said it was important to "understand the scientific significance" of the cow, claiming it was the only animal in the world to both inhale and exhale oxygen"''. Prime Minister ''"Modi himself set the tone in 2014 with his outlandish claim that cosmetic surgery was practised in India thousands of years ago"''.
#''[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-46778879 India scientists dismiss Einstein theories]''. 7th January 2019. BBC News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191005021339/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-46778879 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 5th, 2019.</ref><ref group="n.">Indian scientists and historians have also claimed ''"science is a dwarf in front of astrology"'' and that ''"India conducted nuclear tests more than 100,000 years ago"''.
#''[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-46778879 India scientists dismiss Einstein theories]''. 7th January 2019. BBC News. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191005021339/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-46778879 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 5th, 2019.
It should be noted that India did not obtain nuclear weapons until the 20th century, with the first atom bombs having been invented in the US amidst the chaos of World War II (1939—1945; and later used against the Japanese Empire; 1894—1947).
#Mike Mason (2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AXwJAjjDryoC&pg=PA33&dq=Japanese+Empire+%22lasted+from%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjqxqfe4oXlAhUITsAKHUqkA6gQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=Japanese%20Empire%20%22lasted%20from%22&f=false Global Shift: Asia, Africa, and Latin America, 1945-2007]''. McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-7735-4062-0.
#Albert I Berger (5 February 2016). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WGuFCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA130&dq=united+states+%22invented+nuclear+weapons%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjM3Mzb4YXlAhVIXMAKHeuXCj8Q6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=united%20states%20%22invented%20nuclear%20weapons%22&f=false Life and Times of the Atomic Bomb: Nuclear Weapons and the Transformation of Warfare]''. Routledge. p. 130. ISBN 978-1-317-52009-2.
#Carol Berkin; Christopher Miller; Robert Cherny (1 January 2010). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GB3k_j1m1mgC&pg=PA581&dq=US+%22drops+atomic+bombs%22+on+japan&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwirn7TS44XlAhUJT8AKHYwTA8IQ6AEILDAA#v=onepage&q=US%20%22drops%20atomic%20bombs%22%20on%20japan&f=false Making America: A History of the United States, Volume 2: From 1865, Brief]''. Cengage Learning. p. 581. ISBN 0-618-47141-3.
The bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki killed 295,956 people according to 1990 estimates. By contrast, conventional aerial bombing of mainland Japan (excluding Okinawa) killed up to 256,000 (which itself is considered a conservative estimate).
#Norma Field (9 February 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Snhmb_UoTbgC&pg=PA196&dq=death+toll+hiroshima+nagasaki&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjwrr3cgYnlAhWAQUEAHXesB_w4ChDoAQhMMAU#v=onepage&q=death%20toll%20hiroshima%20nagasaki&f=false In the Realm of a Dying Emperor]''. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-307-76100-2.</ref> Crucially, Amit Roy—an Indian investigative journalist—writing on the history of chicken tikka masala found no evidence to suggest that it was actually from India at all; noting it is ''"a dish which does not exist in Indian cuisine"''.<ref name="Peter Grove; Colleen Grove (2008).">Peter Grove; Colleen Grove (2008). ''[http://www.menumagazine.co.uk/book/tikkamasala.html IS IT OR ISN'T IT? (The Chicken Tikka Masala Story)]''. Menu Magazine. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20161127225804/http://www.menumagazine.co.uk/book/tikkamasala.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 5th, 2019.</ref> Thus its ''"Indian origins"'' can at least be discounted.<ref name="Peter Grove; Colleen Grove (2008)."/><ref group="n.">However, this hasn't stopped many Indians from claiming it was invented in India. Some claim that the recipe had been passed down for ''"generations"'' amongst Mughal royal chefs. Others have claimed that the dish was ''"first tasted"'' in 1971 in the Punjab, which makes it ''"not more than 40-50 years old"''. However all of these claims appear vague as they do not seem traceable to any one person; they are thus considered unreliable. Furthermore none of the claimants who dispute the origin of chicken tikka masala from India are actually historians themselves, but, merely chefs or ''"street food experts"''. 
#Dean Nelson; Jalees Andrabi (August 4th, 2009). ''[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/5972643/Chicken-tikka-masala-row-grows-as-Indian-chefs-reprimand-Scottish-MPs-over-culinary-origins.html Chicken tikka masala row grows as Indian chefs reprimand Scottish MPs over culinary origins]''. The Telegraph. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191005020820/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/5972643/Chicken-tikka-masala-row-grows-as-Indian-chefs-reprimand-Scottish-MPs-over-culinary-origins.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 5th, 2019.</ref>
**What is particularly notable is that news sites discussing the invention, including the ''"Culture Trip"'', note that the Pakistani claim appears the ''"the most convincing"'', as the other claims on the origin of its invention remain disputed themselves.<ref name="Tori Chalmers (16th April 2018).">Tori Chalmers (16th April 2018). ''[https://theculturetrip.com/europe/united-kingdom/scotland/articles/a-brief-history-of-chicken-tikka-masala/ A Brief History of Chicken Tikka Masala]''. The Culture Trip. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190717062322/https://theculturetrip.com/europe/united-kingdom/scotland/articles/a-brief-history-of-chicken-tikka-masala/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 5th, 2019.</ref> It is further particularly notable that one of the largest travel publishers, ''"Lonely Planet"'', names the Shish Mahal ''"as the best place of earth to try the dish"'' in ''"The World’s Best Spicy Food"''.<ref name="Gillian Loney (16th April 2018).">Gillian Loney (16th April 2018). ''[https://www.glasgowlive.co.uk/news/history/glasgow-invented-chicken-tikka-masala-12015915 The story of the Glasgow restaurant that claims to have invented chicken tikka masala]''. Glasgow Live. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191005023241/https://www.glasgowlive.co.uk/news/history/glasgow-invented-chicken-tikka-masala-12015915 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 5th, 2019.</ref> 
**The next most credible claim of it's origin is from the British Bengali community. Research by food historians Peter Grove (1942—2016)<ref name="News Desk (2016).">News Desk (2016). ''[https://www.curryculture.co.uk/peter-grove-passed/ OUR TRIBUTE TO PETER GROVE]''. Curry Culture. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191006030918/https://www.curryculture.co.uk/peter-grove-passed/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 6th, 2019.</ref> and Colleen Grove (????—????),<ref name="Sourish Bhattacharyya (31 July 2013).">Sourish Bhattacharyya (31 July 2013). ''[https://www.dailymail.co.uk/indiahome/indianews/article-2382106/FORTUNE-COOKIE-Exploring-mystery-curry-got-name.html FORTUNE COOKIE: Exploring the mystery of how curry got its name]''. Daily Mail. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191006032348/https://www.dailymail.co.uk/indiahome/indianews/article-2382106/FORTUNE-COOKIE-Exploring-mystery-curry-got-name.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 6th, 2019.</ref> conclude that the dish ''"was most certainly invented in Britain, probably by a Bangladeshi chef"''.<ref name="Peter Grove; Colleen Grove (2008)."/>

*'''''New Sindheri Kharbooza'''''—In 2013, ''"Fresh Plaza"'', an industry information based portal in the Netherlands which reports on the latest developments in the fresh produce business,<ref name="freshplaza">''[http://www.fruittradecoach.com/freshplaza.html Fresh Plaza]''. Fruit Trade Coach. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190131090455/http://www.fruittradecoach.com/freshplaza.html WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref> reported that Pakistani scientists were the first to create a new melon variety called the ''"new sindheri melon"''.<ref name="newsindherimelon">''[https://www.freshplaza.com/article/2112306/pakistan-announce-new-melon-variety/ Pakistan announce new melon variety]''. 20th August 2013. Fresh Plaza. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191014115501/https://www.freshplaza.com/article/2112306/pakistan-announce-new-melon-variety/ WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved October 15th, 2019.</ref> It was developed by the department of ''Plant Breeding and Genetics'' at the ''University of Agriculture, Faisalabad''.<ref name="newsindherimelon"/> The melon was first made public by Asif Ali who is the director of research, innovation and commercialisation at the university.<ref name="newsindherimelon"/> The school itself has a close relationship with the ''"All Pakistan Fruit & Vegetable Exporters, Importers and Merchants Association"'' (PFVA) which funds agricultural PhD programmes at the university.<ref name="newsindherimelon"/>
</div>
</div>

===Sport & Recreation (2)===
<!-------------DESKTOP VERSION ---------------------->
<div id="nomobile">
<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">
::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete.''
[[File:3437214 landscape.jpg|thumb|210px|left|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">The Mughal Empire.</div>]]
::::::::::*'''Huqqah (''Hookah'')'''—Hakim Aboul Futteh Ghilani (d. 1588<ref name="iranica"/>) was the first to invent the hookah; a pneumatic pipe that allows smoke to pass through water and subsequently be smoked. The West knew it at the time as the ''"pipe of India"''.<ref name="Rousselet1876">Louis Rousselet (1876). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BL8-AQAAMAAJ&pg=PR290&dq=India+and+Its+Native+Princes:+Travels+in+Central+India+and+in+the+Presidencies+of+Bombay+and+Bengal&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjx6eDMpIXjAhUEiFwKHSFMD8MQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=India%20and%20Its%20Native%20Princes%3A%20Travels%20in%20Central%20India%20and%20in%20the%20Presidencies%20of%20Bombay%20and%20Bengal&f=false India and Its Native Princes: Travels in Central India and in the Presidencies of Bombay and Bengal]''. Scribner Armstrong, and Company. p. 290.</ref> 
::::::::::**However ''"Encyclopaedia Iranica"'' disputes this, as they claim Persia to have invented it first.<ref name="iranica">''[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/galyan- ḠALYĀN]''. December 15th, 2000. Encyclopaedia Iranica. ''[http://archive.is/Jklf WayBackMachine Link]''. Vol. X, Fasc. 3, pp. 261-265. Retrieved June 25th, 2019.</ref> They base this on a single quatrain (a stanza from a poem that consists of ''"four lines, especially one having alternate rhymes"'') from Ahli Sirazo (d. 1535) which makes mention of the use of the word ''Gilyan'', which apparently dates ''"its use [to] at least as early as the time of Ṭahmāsp I (930-84/1524-76)"''.<ref name="iranica"/> However, apart from this rather vague line, nothing else substantive exists to suggests it was ever used or invented in Persia.
::::::::::***The Encyclopedia even expressly admits this, saying ''"[t]he exact date of the first use of ḡalyān in Persia is not known"''.<ref name="iranica"/>
::::::::::**More substantive historical evidence however notes that it was the court doctor of Emperor Akbar (1542—1605) who first invented it.<ref name="Sivaramakrishnan2001">V. M. Sivaramakrishnan (2001). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k3IooL36XmgC&pg=PA48&dq=Tobacco+and+Areca+Nut&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwirl6z4o4XjAhWZilwKHT5aDJcQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=hookah&f=false Tobacco and Areca Nut]''. Orient Blackswan. pp. 4–5. ISBN 978-81-250-2013-4.</ref> This coincided with the introduction of tobacco leaves into the Mughal Empire (1526—1857) by the Portuguese, and subsequently European style smoking pipes.<ref name="Sivaramakrishnan2001"/> Akbar was given one and decided to take a smoke, but his physician was worried the fumes would be too toxic for his health, and suggested that the smoke be passed over water before being inhaled.<ref name="Sivaramakrishnan2001"/> 
::::::::::***It soon became extremely popular with Akbar's court and noblemen and then spread all across the empire and into the adjacent regions.<ref name="Sivaramakrishnan2001"/>

[[File:13151693 1349744501708057 6468459609101877635 n.jpg|thumb|right|125px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:70%;">A tape ball.</div>]]
*'''Tape Ball Cricket'''—Pakistan was the first to invent a game called tape ball cricket, which is an informal version of the actual game of cricket, except the difference is that instead of using an expensive, dense, hardball, tape ball cricket uses a tennis ball wrapped in electrical tape.<ref name="greekwebsite">''[http://www.ekathimerini.com/242201/article/ekathimerini/community/pakistans-street-cricketers-bring-game-to-life-in-greece Pakistan's street cricketers bring game to life in Greece]''. July 13th, 2019. H KAΘHMEPINH (ekathimerini). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190720124618/http://www.ekathimerini.com/242201/article/ekathimerini/community/pakistans-street-cricketers-bring-game-to-life-in-greece WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved July 20th, 2019.</ref> It ''"flourishes spontaneously in gullies (streets) and small patches of concrete...[d]istinctly urban and designed for Asia’s hot and humid conditions, it rarely commences before dusk and is often played after dark under lights, not least during Ramadan"''.<ref name="Ali Nobil Ahmad (May 18th, 2019)."/> This both makes the game safer and far more accessible to millions of casual players. 
**It was invented by Pakistan's poor.<ref name="Ali Nobil Ahmad (May 18th, 2019).">Ali Nobil Ahmad (May 18th, 2019). ''[https://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/tape-ball-the-user-friendly-alternative-to-cricket-invented-by-pakistan-s-poor-1.862948 Tape ball: the user-friendly alternative to cricket invented by Pakistan's poor]''. The National. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190720124934/https://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/tape-ball-the-user-friendly-alternative-to-cricket-invented-by-pakistan-s-poor-1.862948 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved July 20th, 2019.</ref> More specifically it was invented in the 1970s—1980s in Karachi.<ref name="Ali Nobil Ahmad (May 18th, 2019)."/> It has also developed a gambling culture around itself (despite gambling being illegal); ''"[i]ts imprint is most evident in “single wicket” challenges, where individual players bat and bowl to one another without fielders to see who can clock up the most runs in a six-ball over. Announced at the last minute through word of mouth to avoid visits from the police, these compressed encounters, the cricketing equivalent of a penalty shoot out, make T20 look positively long-winded. Dozens can be seen on YouTube, but these clips convey little of the real life intensity of single wicket fixtures, which attract thousands of raucous spectators"''.<ref name="Ali Nobil Ahmad (May 18th, 2019)."/>
</div>
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<!-------------MOBILE VERSION ---------------------->
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<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">
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{| border="0" id="toc" align=center style="text-align:center; font-size:80%; margin: 0px auto 0px auto; width:100%;"
|
<center>
'''[[#Astronomy & Universe (4)|Astronomy]]''' •
'''[[#Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)|Agriculture, Food & Beverage]]''' •
'''[[#Biology (2)|Biology]]''' (''[[#Paleontology (10)|Paleontology]]'') •
'''[[#Chemistry (5)|Chemistry]]''' •
'''[[#Computing (4)|Computing]]''' (''[[#Video-gaming (1)|Video-gaming]] • [[#Board Games (1)|Board-games]]'') •
'''[[#Mathematics (3)|Mathematics]]''' •
'''[[#Medicines (1)|Medicine]]''' (''[[#Disease Eradication (1)|Disease Eradication]]'' • ''[[#Genetics & Disease (5)|Genetics & Disease]]'' • ''[[#Medical Instruments (6)|Instruments]]'') •
'''[[#Physics (5)|Physics]]''' •
'''Engineering''' (''[[#Naval Engineering (1)|Naval]]'' • ''[[#Mechanical Engineering (7)|Mechanical]]'' • ''[[#Handtool Engineering (3)|Handtool]]'' • ''[[#Textile Engineering (3)|Textile]]'' (''[[#Clothing (2)|Clothing]]'') • ''[[#Architectural Engineering (4)|Architectural]]'') •
'''[[#Sport & Recreation (2)|Sport & Recreation]]''' •
'''[[#Disputed (2)|Disputed]]''' •
[[#Further Reading|Further Reading]] •
[[#Sources|Sources]] •
(''[[#Footnotes|Footnotes]]'' • ''[[#References|References]]'' • ''[[#Acknowledgements|Acknowledgements]]'') •
[[#External Links|External Links]] •
'''''Total Inventions & Discoveries Listed: 77'''''
</center>
|}
</div>
::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete.''
[[File:3437214 landscape.jpg|thumb|1000px|center|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">The Mughal Empire.</div>]]
*'''Huqqah (''Hookah'')'''—Hakim Aboul Futteh Ghilani (d. 1588<ref name="iranica"/>) was the first to invent the hookah; a pneumatic pipe that allows smoke to pass through water and subsequently be smoked. The West knew it at the time as the ''"pipe of India"''.<ref name="Rousselet1876">Louis Rousselet (1876). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BL8-AQAAMAAJ&pg=PR290&dq=India+and+Its+Native+Princes:+Travels+in+Central+India+and+in+the+Presidencies+of+Bombay+and+Bengal&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjx6eDMpIXjAhUEiFwKHSFMD8MQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=India%20and%20Its%20Native%20Princes%3A%20Travels%20in%20Central%20India%20and%20in%20the%20Presidencies%20of%20Bombay%20and%20Bengal&f=false India and Its Native Princes: Travels in Central India and in the Presidencies of Bombay and Bengal]''. Scribner Armstrong, and Company. p. 290.</ref> 
**However ''"Encyclopaedia Iranica"'' disputes this, as they claim Persia to have invented it first.<ref name="iranica">''[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/galyan- ḠALYĀN]''. December 15th, 2000. Encyclopaedia Iranica. ''[http://archive.is/Jklf WayBackMachine Link]''. Vol. X, Fasc. 3, pp. 261-265. Retrieved June 25th, 2019.</ref> They base this on a single quatrain (a stanza from a poem that consists of ''"four lines, especially one having alternate rhymes"'') from Ahli Sirazo (d. 1535) which makes mention of the use of the word ''Gilyan'', which apparently dates ''"its use [to] at least as early as the time of Ṭahmāsp I (930-84/1524-76)"''.<ref name="iranica"/> However, apart from this rather vague line, nothing else substantive exists to suggests it was ever used or invented in Persia.
***The Encyclopedia even expressly admits this, saying ''"[t]he exact date of the first use of ḡalyān in Persia is not known"''.<ref name="iranica"/>
**More substantive historical evidence however notes that it was the court doctor of Emperor Akbar (1542—1605) who first invented it.<ref name="Sivaramakrishnan2001">V. M. Sivaramakrishnan (2001). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k3IooL36XmgC&pg=PA48&dq=Tobacco+and+Areca+Nut&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwirl6z4o4XjAhWZilwKHT5aDJcQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=hookah&f=false Tobacco and Areca Nut]''. Orient Blackswan. pp. 4–5. ISBN 978-81-250-2013-4.</ref> This coincided with the introduction of tobacco leaves into the Mughal Empire (1526—1857) by the Portuguese, and subsequently European style smoking pipes.<ref name="Sivaramakrishnan2001"/> Akbar was given one and decided to take a smoke, but his physician was worried the fumes would be too toxic for his health, and suggested that the smoke be passed over water before being inhaled.<ref name="Sivaramakrishnan2001"/> 
***It soon became extremely popular with Akbar's court and noblemen and then spread all across the empire and into the adjacent regions.<ref name="Sivaramakrishnan2001"/>

[[File:13151693 1349744501708057 6468459609101877635 n.jpg|thumb|1000px|center|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:70%;">A tape ball.</div>]]
*'''Tape Ball Cricket'''—Pakistan was the first to invent a game called tape ball cricket, which is an informal version of the actual game of cricket, except the difference is that instead of using an expensive, dense, hardball, tape ball cricket uses a tennis ball wrapped in electrical tape.<ref name="greekwebsite">''[http://www.ekathimerini.com/242201/article/ekathimerini/community/pakistans-street-cricketers-bring-game-to-life-in-greece Pakistan's street cricketers bring game to life in Greece]''. July 13th, 2019. H KAΘHMEPINH (ekathimerini). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190720124618/http://www.ekathimerini.com/242201/article/ekathimerini/community/pakistans-street-cricketers-bring-game-to-life-in-greece WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved July 20th, 2019.</ref> It ''"flourishes spontaneously in gullies (streets) and small patches of concrete...[d]istinctly urban and designed for Asia’s hot and humid conditions, it rarely commences before dusk and is often played after dark under lights, not least during Ramadan"''.<ref name="Ali Nobil Ahmad (May 18th, 2019)."/> This both makes the game safer and far more accessible to millions of casual players. 
**It was invented by Pakistan's poor.<ref name="Ali Nobil Ahmad (May 18th, 2019).">Ali Nobil Ahmad (May 18th, 2019). ''[https://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/tape-ball-the-user-friendly-alternative-to-cricket-invented-by-pakistan-s-poor-1.862948 Tape ball: the user-friendly alternative to cricket invented by Pakistan's poor]''. The National. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190720124934/https://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/tape-ball-the-user-friendly-alternative-to-cricket-invented-by-pakistan-s-poor-1.862948 WayBackMachine Link]''. Retrieved July 20th, 2019.</ref> More specifically it was invented in the 1970s—1980s in Karachi.<ref name="Ali Nobil Ahmad (May 18th, 2019)."/> It has also developed a gambling culture around itself (despite gambling being illegal); ''"[i]ts imprint is most evident in “single wicket” challenges, where individual players bat and bowl to one another without fielders to see who can clock up the most runs in a six-ball over. Announced at the last minute through word of mouth to avoid visits from the police, these compressed encounters, the cricketing equivalent of a penalty shoot out, make T20 look positively long-winded. Dozens can be seen on YouTube, but these clips convey little of the real life intensity of single wicket fixtures, which attract thousands of raucous spectators"''.<ref name="Ali Nobil Ahmad (May 18th, 2019)."/>
</div>
</div>

==Disputed (2)==

===Mechanical Engineering (1)===
<!-------------DESKTOP VERSION ---------------------->
<div id="nomobile">
<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">
::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete.''
[[File:WHEELPARTS.jpg|thumb|right|150px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;font-size:90%;">The spinning wheel.</div>]]
*'''Spinning Wheel'''—It is not exactly known when the spinning wheel was invented, but there are two civilisations which have claims on it.<ref name="Pacey1991">Arnold Pacey (1991). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X7e8rHL1lf4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Technology+in+World+Civilization:+A+Thousand-Year+History&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjb9fjdoYjhAhVbRhUIHSPWD0sQ6AEIKjAA#v=snippet&q=spinning%20wheel&f=false Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-year History]''. MIT Press. pp. 23–24. ISBN 978-0-262-66072-3.</ref> One is Indian and the other is Arabic Muslim.<ref name="Pacey1991"/> Some have given India the credit for having invented it between 500 and 1000 AD,<ref name="SmithCothren1999">C. Wayne Smith; J. Tom Cothren (30 August 1999). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5XM6b1TKS5cC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Cotton:+Origin,+History,+Technology,+and+Production&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjrlu_VrojhAhWARxUIHa5eD08Q6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=spinning%20wheel&f=false Cotton: Origin, History, Technology, and Production]''. John Wiley & Sons. p. viii. ISBN 978-0-471-18045-6.</ref> although Indian historians themselves have noted that ''"references to cotton spinning are so vague that none clearly identifies a wheel...[t]he references could equally indicate earlier methods of hand spinning"''.<ref name="Pacey1991"/><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"One controversial aspect of the history of technology in North India concerns the spinning wheel. Because cotton textiles originated in India, it has long been assumed that the spinning wheel, as used with cotton, must also have been invented in the subcontinent, perhaps between AD 500 and 1000. However, early references to cotton spinning are so vague that none clearly identifies a wheel, according to Irfan Habib. The references could equally indicate earlier methods of hand spinning. The earliest unambiguous reference is in a document dating from about 1350 which mentions women using spinning wheels in the previous century. Habib also points out that the most usual word in India for a spinning wheel is charkha, and this derives from the Persian language. He therefore thinks that the spinning wheel was introduced into India from Iran in the thirteenth century. If the spinning wheel is not an Indian invention, where did it originate? The earliest clear illustrations of this machine come from Baghdad (drawin in 1237), China (c. 1270) and Europe (c. 1280). It might seem from this that spinning wheels appeared in China and Europe at almost the same time, and one may be tempted to think that conquests of the Mongol armies both in Eastern Europe and in China had created conditions for especially rapid transmission of new technologies. This may be true of some inventions...but is not convincing in this case because simpler forms of wheel for winding bobbins were in use much earlier, and some silk-processing equipment was also widely disseminated before the Mongol conquests began. Alonside these machines is some evidence that spinning wheels of some sort may have already come into use in both China and the Islamic world during the eleventh century"''.
#Arnold Pacey (1991). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X7e8rHL1lf4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Technology+in+World+Civilization:+A+Thousand-Year+History&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjb9fjdoYjhAhVbRhUIHSPWD0sQ6AEIKjAA#v=snippet&q=spinning%20wheel&f=false Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-year History]''. MIT Press. pp. 23–24. ISBN 978-0-262-66072-3.</ref> The earliest reference is made in 1350, saying they were first used in the previous century.<ref name="Pacey1991"/> This was not ambiguous.<ref name="Pacey1991"/>
**The earliest physical evidence for the spinning wheel comes from Baghdad in 1237.<ref name="Pacey1991"/> China first depicted it in c. 1270 and Europe in c. 1280.<ref name="Pacey1991"/> However the earliest written reference to spinning wheels comes from the Islamic world in c. 1030, whereas it was alluded to next in China in c. 1090.<ref name="Pacey1991"/><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"However, in view of the vagueness of the evidence, arguments about origins should not be pushed too far. It may be useful to think again in terms of a technological dialogue in whcih the westward dissemination of silk and cotton textiles from China and India respectively stimulated many local responses. These may have included numerous minor innovations, and once the winding wheel was known, some form of wheel for spinning may have been suggested to the minds of a number of individuals in quite different places. The possibility of independent regional invention was all the greater because of the distinctive qualities of textiles manufactured in different places. For example, surviving specimens of silk fabric show that thread production in the Islamic countries (and Europe) was always twisted to make it stronger, whereas Chinese manufacturers seem to have avoided this because fabric woven from twisted thread was stiffer and less lustrous. For that reason, mechanical devices for twisting thread are more likely to have been invented in the West rather than China. Indeed, there is an Islamic description of a silk twisting machine dating from just before 1030. Experience of this machine could have led to a distinctive approach to spinning other textile fibres, and may ultimately have contributed to the invention of the specifically European type of spinning wheel known as the Saxony wheel. Some emphasis on silk manufactures is justified because of the suggestion by some historians that, in China, mechanized techniques developed first in silk workshops and were then adapted for use with cotton and other fibres. In this context, the first process to consider is unwinding the long, continuous filament from the silk-worm cocoon. This was done by plunging the cocoons into hot water, which killed the 'worm' whilst loosening the filament. At quite an early date, and certainly before 1090, silk-reeling machines were being used in China which had a small heated bath of water containing the cocoons at one end and a large reel onto which the filaments were wound at the other (figure 8). Two other processes were necessary before silk thread or yarn was ready for weaving. Firstly, several filaments had to be combined in a single, strong thread. This is where Islamic workers chose to twist the filaments together. In China, thread was often produced without twisting, by relying on the natural gum from the cocoon which coated each filament. This could hold the filaments together once they had been brought into contact on a winding wheel adapted for 'doubling' threads. The gum protected and strengthened the thread during weaving, but was eventually removed by steeping the finished cloth in water"''.
#Arnold Pacey (1991). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X7e8rHL1lf4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Technology+in+World+Civilization:+A+Thousand-Year+History&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjb9fjdoYjhAhVbRhUIHSPWD0sQ6AEIKjAA#v=snippet&q=spinning%20wheel&f=false Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-year History]''. MIT Press. pp. 23–26. ISBN 978-0-262-66072-3.</ref> It is also notable that China at the time due to technological constraints in the materials that they worked with which were incapable of being spun; therefore they wouldn't have been able to invent the spinning wheel.<ref name="Pacey1991"/> Therefore, the strongest claimant appears to be Muslim civilisation.<ref name="Pacey1991"/>
</div>
</div>

<!-------------MOBILE VERSION ---------------------->
<div id="mf-banner">
<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">
<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">
{| border="0" id="toc" align=center style="text-align:center; font-size:80%; margin: 0px auto 0px auto; width:100%;"
|
<center>
'''[[#Astronomy & Universe (4)|Astronomy]]''' •
'''[[#Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)|Agriculture, Food & Beverage]]''' •
'''[[#Biology (2)|Biology]]''' (''[[#Paleontology (10)|Paleontology]]'') •
'''[[#Chemistry (5)|Chemistry]]''' •
'''[[#Computing (4)|Computing]]''' (''[[#Video-gaming (1)|Video-gaming]] • [[#Board Games (1)|Board-games]]'') •
'''[[#Mathematics (3)|Mathematics]]''' •
'''[[#Medicines (1)|Medicine]]''' (''[[#Disease Eradication (1)|Disease Eradication]]'' • ''[[#Genetics & Disease (5)|Genetics & Disease]]'' • ''[[#Medical Instruments (6)|Instruments]]'') •
'''[[#Physics (5)|Physics]]''' •
'''Engineering''' (''[[#Naval Engineering (1)|Naval]]'' • ''[[#Mechanical Engineering (7)|Mechanical]]'' • ''[[#Handtool Engineering (3)|Handtool]]'' • ''[[#Textile Engineering (3)|Textile]]'' (''[[#Clothing (2)|Clothing]]'') • ''[[#Architectural Engineering (4)|Architectural]]'') •
'''[[#Sport & Recreation (2)|Sport & Recreation]]''' •
'''[[#Disputed (2)|Disputed]]''' •
[[#Further Reading|Further Reading]] •
[[#Sources|Sources]] •
(''[[#Footnotes|Footnotes]]'' • ''[[#References|References]]'' • ''[[#Acknowledgements|Acknowledgements]]'') •
[[#External Links|External Links]] •
'''''Total Inventions & Discoveries Listed: 77'''''
</center>
|}
</div>
::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete.''
[[File:WHEELPARTS.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;font-size:90%;">The spinning wheel.</div>]]
*'''Spinning Wheel'''—It is not exactly known when the spinning wheel was invented, but there are two civilisations which have claims on it.<ref name="Pacey1991">Arnold Pacey (1991). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X7e8rHL1lf4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Technology+in+World+Civilization:+A+Thousand-Year+History&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjb9fjdoYjhAhVbRhUIHSPWD0sQ6AEIKjAA#v=snippet&q=spinning%20wheel&f=false Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-year History]''. MIT Press. pp. 23–24. ISBN 978-0-262-66072-3.</ref> One is Indian and the other is Arabic Muslim.<ref name="Pacey1991"/> Some have given India the credit for having invented it between 500 and 1000 AD,<ref name="SmithCothren1999">C. Wayne Smith; J. Tom Cothren (30 August 1999). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5XM6b1TKS5cC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Cotton:+Origin,+History,+Technology,+and+Production&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjrlu_VrojhAhWARxUIHa5eD08Q6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=spinning%20wheel&f=false Cotton: Origin, History, Technology, and Production]''. John Wiley & Sons. p. viii. ISBN 978-0-471-18045-6.</ref> although Indian historians themselves have noted that ''"references to cotton spinning are so vague that none clearly identifies a wheel...[t]he references could equally indicate earlier methods of hand spinning"''.<ref name="Pacey1991"/><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"One controversial aspect of the history of technology in North India concerns the spinning wheel. Because cotton textiles originated in India, it has long been assumed that the spinning wheel, as used with cotton, must also have been invented in the subcontinent, perhaps between AD 500 and 1000. However, early references to cotton spinning are so vague that none clearly identifies a wheel, according to Irfan Habib. The references could equally indicate earlier methods of hand spinning. The earliest unambiguous reference is in a document dating from about 1350 which mentions women using spinning wheels in the previous century. Habib also points out that the most usual word in India for a spinning wheel is charkha, and this derives from the Persian language. He therefore thinks that the spinning wheel was introduced into India from Iran in the thirteenth century. If the spinning wheel is not an Indian invention, where did it originate? The earliest clear illustrations of this machine come from Baghdad (drawin in 1237), China (c. 1270) and Europe (c. 1280). It might seem from this that spinning wheels appeared in China and Europe at almost the same time, and one may be tempted to think that conquests of the Mongol armies both in Eastern Europe and in China had created conditions for especially rapid transmission of new technologies. This may be true of some inventions...but is not convincing in this case because simpler forms of wheel for winding bobbins were in use much earlier, and some silk-processing equipment was also widely disseminated before the Mongol conquests began. Alonside these machines is some evidence that spinning wheels of some sort may have already come into use in both China and the Islamic world during the eleventh century"''.
#Arnold Pacey (1991). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X7e8rHL1lf4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Technology+in+World+Civilization:+A+Thousand-Year+History&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjb9fjdoYjhAhVbRhUIHSPWD0sQ6AEIKjAA#v=snippet&q=spinning%20wheel&f=false Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-year History]''. MIT Press. pp. 23–24. ISBN 978-0-262-66072-3.</ref> The earliest reference is made in 1350, saying they were first used in the previous century.<ref name="Pacey1991"/> This was not ambiguous.<ref name="Pacey1991"/>
**The earliest physical evidence for the spinning wheel comes from Baghdad in 1237.<ref name="Pacey1991"/> China first depicted it in c. 1270 and Europe in c. 1280.<ref name="Pacey1991"/> However the earliest written reference to spinning wheels comes from the Islamic world in c. 1030, whereas it was alluded to next in China in c. 1090.<ref name="Pacey1991"/><ref group="n.">'''Quote:''' ''"However, in view of the vagueness of the evidence, arguments about origins should not be pushed too far. It may be useful to think again in terms of a technological dialogue in whcih the westward dissemination of silk and cotton textiles from China and India respectively stimulated many local responses. These may have included numerous minor innovations, and once the winding wheel was known, some form of wheel for spinning may have been suggested to the minds of a number of individuals in quite different places. The possibility of independent regional invention was all the greater because of the distinctive qualities of textiles manufactured in different places. For example, surviving specimens of silk fabric show that thread production in the Islamic countries (and Europe) was always twisted to make it stronger, whereas Chinese manufacturers seem to have avoided this because fabric woven from twisted thread was stiffer and less lustrous. For that reason, mechanical devices for twisting thread are more likely to have been invented in the West rather than China. Indeed, there is an Islamic description of a silk twisting machine dating from just before 1030. Experience of this machine could have led to a distinctive approach to spinning other textile fibres, and may ultimately have contributed to the invention of the specifically European type of spinning wheel known as the Saxony wheel. Some emphasis on silk manufactures is justified because of the suggestion by some historians that, in China, mechanized techniques developed first in silk workshops and were then adapted for use with cotton and other fibres. In this context, the first process to consider is unwinding the long, continuous filament from the silk-worm cocoon. This was done by plunging the cocoons into hot water, which killed the 'worm' whilst loosening the filament. At quite an early date, and certainly before 1090, silk-reeling machines were being used in China which had a small heated bath of water containing the cocoons at one end and a large reel onto which the filaments were wound at the other (figure 8). Two other processes were necessary before silk thread or yarn was ready for weaving. Firstly, several filaments had to be combined in a single, strong thread. This is where Islamic workers chose to twist the filaments together. In China, thread was often produced without twisting, by relying on the natural gum from the cocoon which coated each filament. This could hold the filaments together once they had been brought into contact on a winding wheel adapted for 'doubling' threads. The gum protected and strengthened the thread during weaving, but was eventually removed by steeping the finished cloth in water"''.
#Arnold Pacey (1991). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X7e8rHL1lf4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Technology+in+World+Civilization:+A+Thousand-Year+History&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjb9fjdoYjhAhVbRhUIHSPWD0sQ6AEIKjAA#v=snippet&q=spinning%20wheel&f=false Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-year History]''. MIT Press. pp. 23–26. ISBN 978-0-262-66072-3.</ref> It is also notable that China at the time due to technological constraints in the materials that they worked with which were incapable of being spun; therefore they wouldn't have been able to invent the spinning wheel.<ref name="Pacey1991"/> Therefore, the strongest claimant appears to be Muslim civilisation.<ref name="Pacey1991"/>
</div>
</div>

===Agriculture (1)===
<!-------------DESKTOP VERSION ---------------------->
<div id="nomobile">
<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">
::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete.''
[[File:A2aafc1d66969ba8469319ad7384dc9a.jpg|thumb|left|120px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Animals such as oxen were first used by the Indus Valley Civilisation to drive ploughs between 3,000 BC and 2,000 BC. Note: This must not be confused with animal-driven ards and hoes.</div>]]
::::::*'''Animal-drawn Plough'''—The ''"ard"'' was first invented in Mesopotamia between 5,000 BC and 4,000 BC,<ref name="LalReicosky2007"/> however, the first ''animal'' drawn ploughs were invented in ancient Pakistan between 3,000 BC and 2,000 BC.<ref name="LalReicosky2007"/><ref name="Lal2001">Lal, R (2001). ''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167198701001842?via%3Dihub Thematic evolution of ISTRO: transition in scientific issues and research focus from 1955 to 2000]''. Soil and Tillage Research. 61 (1–2): 3–12. doi:10.1016/S0167-1987(01)00184-2. ISSN 0167-1987.</ref> It should also be noted that the predecessor to the plough was the ard.<ref name="Sandred1966">Sandred, Karl Inge (1966). ''[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00393276608587365 On the terminology of the plough in England]''. Studia Neophilologica. 38 (2): 323–338. doi:10.1080/00393276608587365. ISSN 0039-3274.</ref> This was the device that is being referred to above that was used by the Mesopotamians.<ref name="LalReicosky2007"/> However these ploughs were too simple to be considered true ploughs, and scholars have preferred to give the Indus Valley credit for developing the ''"[u]se of animal-driven plow[s]"'' rather than the Mesopotamians.<ref name="LalReicosky2007">Lal, R.; Reicosky, D.C.; Hanson, J.D. (2007). ''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167198706002522?via%3Dihub Evolution of the plow over 10,000 years and the rationale for no-till farming]''. Soil and Tillage Research. 93 (1): 1–12. doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.11.004. ISSN 0167-1987.
</ref>
::::::**A small terra-cotta model of the plough was discovered in Banawali, which showed that it was a narrow design, and had a pointed share in order to gouge through the soil, with a curved shaft by which it was drawn along.<ref name="McIntosh2008p121">Jane McIntosh (2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC&pg=PA121#v=onepage&q&f=false The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives]''. ABC-CLIO. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2.</ref> However the model is problematic in that it doesn't show the scale of the plough that was originally being used by these ancient Pakistanis.<ref name="McIntosh2008p121"/> For example it could have been small enough to have been drawn by a single man, although ''"it is more likely that a yoke for a plow team of two oxen would have been attached to the shaft"''.<ref name="McIntosh2008p121"/> Prior to the plough, the ard was being pulled by animals.<ref name="GijnWhittaker2014">Annelou van Gijn; John Whittaker; Patricia C. Anderson (29 August 2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PoBiBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA33&dq=ard+was+being+pulled+by+animals&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiajNDQv8jiAhVwTBUIHeXMDiEQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=ard%20was%20being%20pulled%20by%20animals&f=false Exploring and Explaining Diversity in Agricultural Technology]''. Oxbow Books. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-78297-023-1.</ref>
::::::**The exact definition of what a plough is can be confusing as ''"ard"'' and ''"plough"'' are used interchangeably. To be clear an ard is a device without a mouldboard, whereas a plough is a device with a mouldboard.<ref name="Sandred1966"/> And to further elaborate, the earliest ploughing device was a simple hoe that was drawn through the ground, with one man with a rope pulling the front, whilst another was behind digging it into the soil.<ref name="Dilworth2010">Craig Dilworth (2010). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nDY7803CA10C&pg=PA273&dq=Ploughs+invented+mesopotamia&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjX7JL5msfiAhURTxUIHdE-DvcQ6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=Ploughs%20invented%20mesopotamia&f=false Too Smart for Our Own Good: The Ecological Predicament of Humankind]''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 273–274. ISBN 978-0-521-76436-0.</ref> In 3,500 BC, this hoe was being pulled by cattle, and between 2,686 BC and 2,134 BC it was being pulled by oxen in Egypt.<ref name="Dilworth2010"/> These ploughs were made of wood; by 750 BC that they were made out of steel.<ref name="Dilworth2010"/> 

Overall, historians do not universally agree on who was the first to use the animal-drawn plough (since the terminology used to describe the plough itself is often confusing—as has been described above) but there appears to be somewhat of a consensus that the concept was invented in the Indus Valley.<ref name="LalReicosky2007"/>
</div>
</div>

<!-------------MOBILE VERSION ---------------------->
<div id="mf-banner">
<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">
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{| border="0" id="toc" align=center style="text-align:center; font-size:80%; margin: 0px auto 0px auto; width:100%;"
|
<center>
'''[[#Astronomy & Universe (4)|Astronomy]]''' •
'''[[#Agriculture, Food & Beverage (5)|Agriculture, Food & Beverage]]''' •
'''[[#Biology (2)|Biology]]''' (''[[#Paleontology (10)|Paleontology]]'') •
'''[[#Chemistry (5)|Chemistry]]''' •
'''[[#Computing (4)|Computing]]''' (''[[#Video-gaming (1)|Video-gaming]] • [[#Board Games (1)|Board-games]]'') •
'''[[#Mathematics (3)|Mathematics]]''' •
'''[[#Medicines (1)|Medicine]]''' (''[[#Disease Eradication (1)|Disease Eradication]]'' • ''[[#Genetics & Disease (5)|Genetics & Disease]]'' • ''[[#Medical Instruments (6)|Instruments]]'') •
'''[[#Physics (5)|Physics]]''' •
'''Engineering''' (''[[#Naval Engineering (1)|Naval]]'' • ''[[#Mechanical Engineering (7)|Mechanical]]'' • ''[[#Handtool Engineering (3)|Handtool]]'' • ''[[#Textile Engineering (3)|Textile]]'' (''[[#Clothing (2)|Clothing]]'') • ''[[#Architectural Engineering (4)|Architectural]]'') •
'''[[#Sport & Recreation (2)|Sport & Recreation]]''' •
'''[[#Disputed (2)|Disputed]]''' •
[[#Further Reading|Further Reading]] •
[[#Sources|Sources]] •
(''[[#Footnotes|Footnotes]]'' • ''[[#References|References]]'' • ''[[#Acknowledgements|Acknowledgements]]'') •
[[#External Links|External Links]] •
'''''Total Inventions & Discoveries Listed: 77'''''
</center>
|}
</div>
::''This is by no means an exhaustive list, and thus should be considered incomplete.''
[[File:A2aafc1d66969ba8469319ad7384dc9a.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:80%;">Animals such as oxen were first used by the Indus Valley Civilisation to drive ploughs between 3,000 BC and 2,000 BC. Note: This must not be confused with animal-driven ards and hoes.</div>]]
*'''Animal-drawn Plough'''—The ''"ard"'' was first invented in Mesopotamia between 5,000 BC and 4,000 BC,<ref name="LalReicosky2007"/> however, the first ''animal'' drawn ploughs were invented in ancient Pakistan between 3,000 BC and 2,000 BC.<ref name="LalReicosky2007"/><ref name="Lal2001">Lal, R (2001). ''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167198701001842?via%3Dihub Thematic evolution of ISTRO: transition in scientific issues and research focus from 1955 to 2000]''. Soil and Tillage Research. 61 (1–2): 3–12. doi:10.1016/S0167-1987(01)00184-2. ISSN 0167-1987.</ref> It should also be noted that the predecessor to the plough was the ard.<ref name="Sandred1966">Sandred, Karl Inge (1966). ''[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00393276608587365 On the terminology of the plough in England]''. Studia Neophilologica. 38 (2): 323–338. doi:10.1080/00393276608587365. ISSN 0039-3274.</ref> This was the device that is being referred to above that was used by the Mesopotamians.<ref name="LalReicosky2007"/> However these ploughs were too simple to be considered true ploughs, and scholars have preferred to give the Indus Valley credit for developing the ''"[u]se of animal-driven plow[s]"'' rather than the Mesopotamians.<ref name="LalReicosky2007">Lal, R.; Reicosky, D.C.; Hanson, J.D. (2007). ''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167198706002522?via%3Dihub Evolution of the plow over 10,000 years and the rationale for no-till farming]''. Soil and Tillage Research. 93 (1): 1–12. doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.11.004. ISSN 0167-1987.
</ref>
**A small terra-cotta model of the plough was discovered in Banawali, which showed that it was a narrow design, and had a pointed share in order to gouge through the soil, with a curved shaft by which it was drawn along.<ref name="McIntosh2008p121">Jane McIntosh (2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC&pg=PA121#v=onepage&q&f=false The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives]''. ABC-CLIO. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2.</ref> However the model is problematic in that it doesn't show the scale of the plough that was originally being used by these ancient Pakistanis.<ref name="McIntosh2008p121"/> For example it could have been small enough to have been drawn by a single man, although ''"it is more likely that a yoke for a plow team of two oxen would have been attached to the shaft"''.<ref name="McIntosh2008p121"/> Prior to the plough, the ard was being pulled by animals.<ref name="GijnWhittaker2014">Annelou van Gijn; John Whittaker; Patricia C. Anderson (29 August 2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PoBiBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA33&dq=ard+was+being+pulled+by+animals&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiajNDQv8jiAhVwTBUIHeXMDiEQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=ard%20was%20being%20pulled%20by%20animals&f=false Exploring and Explaining Diversity in Agricultural Technology]''. Oxbow Books. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-78297-023-1.</ref>
**The exact definition of what a plough is can be confusing as ''"ard"'' and ''"plough"'' are used interchangeably. To be clear an ard is a device without a mouldboard, whereas a plough is a device with a mouldboard.<ref name="Sandred1966"/> And to further elaborate, the earliest ploughing device was a simple hoe that was drawn through the ground, with one man with a rope pulling the front, whilst another was behind digging it into the soil.<ref name="Dilworth2010">Craig Dilworth (2010). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nDY7803CA10C&pg=PA273&dq=Ploughs+invented+mesopotamia&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjX7JL5msfiAhURTxUIHdE-DvcQ6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=Ploughs%20invented%20mesopotamia&f=false Too Smart for Our Own Good: The Ecological Predicament of Humankind]''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 273–274. ISBN 978-0-521-76436-0.</ref> In 3,500 BC, this hoe was being pulled by cattle, and between 2,686 BC and 2,134 BC it was being pulled by oxen in Egypt.<ref name="Dilworth2010"/> These ploughs were made of wood; by 750 BC that they were made out of steel.<ref name="Dilworth2010"/> 

Overall, historians do not universally agree on who was the first to use the animal-drawn plough (since the terminology used to describe the plough itself is often confusing—as has been described above) but there appears to be somewhat of a consensus that the concept was invented in the Indus Valley.<ref name="LalReicosky2007"/>
</div>
</div>

==Further Reading==
<!-------------DESKTOP VERSION ---------------------->
<div id="nomobile">
<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:50%; width:100%;">
[[File:Greater pakistan.jpg|thumb|left|120px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:75%;">''Greater Pakistan'', or the ''Greater Indus Territories''. The region encompasses all the states who share a direct racial lineage with one another, distinct from modern North and South Indians.</div>]]
<small>

::::::::'''Additional Achievements'''
:::::::::*[[File:Nobel Prize.png|8px]] Pakistan was the first Muslim country to receive the Nobel Prize in a science related field (Physics; '''1979''').
:::::::::*[[File:Nuclear-34997 960 720.png|8px]] Pakistan was the first Muslim country to invent their own nuclear bombs. Secretly in '''1977''', publicly in '''1998'''. 
:::::::::**<small>This is spite of sanctions and no external help; see ''[[Project-706/726 Pakistani Nuclear Weapons Project]]'' for details.</small>

::::::::'''Articles'''
:::::::::*Parvez Mahmood (May 17th, 2019). ''[https://www.thefridaytimes.com/our-lost-heritage-i/?fbclid=IwAR2MEoTm4QfQaESiqgaSEYlvM9zH5q3q0joJBXOackyghN2MWEVyWSviQSE Our lost heritage – I]''. The Friday Times. ''[http://archive.is/aEe0y Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved July 19th, 2019.
:::::::::*Parvez Mahmood (May 24th, 2019). ''[https://www.thefridaytimes.com/our-lost-heritage-ii/ Our lost heritage – II]''. The Friday Times. ''[http://archive.is/Jvhfq Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved July 19th, 2019.

::::::::'''Books'''
:::::::::*Mukhtar Ahmed (2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-qLTBAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%22Mukhtar+Ahmed%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj65cKAxK_kAhUOO8AKHRIjDKkQ6AEIMTAB#v=onepage&q&f=false Ancient Pakistan - An Archaeological History: Volume I: The Stone Age]''. 478 pages. Foursome Group. ISBN 978-1-4954-9047-7.
:::::::::*Mukhtar Ahmed (2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=HbvTBAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA4&dq=ancient+pakistan+-+an+archaeological+history+Mukhtar+Ahmed&ots=jBA9wrMUq-&sig=weKKS1hOy6Bkwc67qE-iNMFo8RI#v=onepage&q=ancient%20pakistan%20-%20an%20archaeological%20history%20Mukhtar%20Ahmed&f=false Ancient Pakistan - An Archaeological History: Volume II: A Prelude to Civilization]''. 500 pages. Foursome Group. ISBN 978-1-4959-4130-6.
:::::::::*Mukhtar Ahmed (2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=3qvVBAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA5&dq=ancient+pakistan+-+an+archaeological+history+Mukhtar+Ahmed&ots=p-3K40fyeC&sig=MHes1w53RFYocNsHP9i6mDQ8wIo#v=onepage&q=ancient%20pakistan%20-%20an%20archaeological%20history%20Mukhtar%20Ahmed&f=false Ancient Pakistan - an Archaeological History: Volume III: Harappan Civilization - the Material Culture]''. 480 pages. Foursome Group. ISBN 978-1-4959-6643-9.
:::::::::*Mukhtar Ahmed (2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=FbLVBAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA5&dq=ancient+pakistan+-+an+archaeological+history+Mukhtar+Ahmed&ots=CO7gUo67Mg&sig=iZf83qaWOt00GSekFonc9PmfGjE#v=onepage&q=ancient%20pakistan%20-%20an%20archaeological%20history%20Mukhtar%20Ahmed&f=false Ancient Pakistan - An Archaeological History: Volume IV: Harappan Civilization - Theoretical and the Abstract]''. 480 pages. Foursome Group. ISBN 978-1-4960-8208-4.
:::::::::*Mukhtar Ahmed (2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=huTVBAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ancient+pakistan+Mukhtar+Ahmed+%22the+end+of%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiysrLHxa_kAhWKilwKHWd7AcIQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=ancient%20pakistan%20Mukhtar%20Ahmed%20%22the%20end%20of%22&f=false Ancient Pakistan - An Archaeological History: Volume V: The End of the Harappan Civilization]''. 250 pages. Foursome Group. ISBN 978-1-4997-0982-7.

::::::::'''Related Articles'''
:::::::::*[[File:Cscr-featured.png|8px]] [[List of Inventions and Discoveries in Mechanics During the Islamic Golden Age|List of Inventions and Discoveries in '''''Mechanics''''' During the Islamic Golden Age]]
:::::::::*[[File:Cscr-featured.png|8px]] [[List of Inventions and Discoveries in Medicine During the Islamic Golden Age|List of Inventions and Discoveries in '''''Medicine''''' During the Islamic Golden Age]]
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*<small>Rosenberg, Noah A.; Mahajan, Saurabh; Gonzalez-Quevedo, Catalina; Blum, Michael G. B.; Nino-Rosales, Laura; Ninis, Vasiliki; Das, Parimal; Hegde, Madhuri; Molinari, Laura; Zapata, Gladys; Weber, James L.; Belmont, John W.; Patel, Pragna I. (2006). ''[https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.0020215 Low Levels of Genetic Divergence across Geographically and Linguistically Diverse Populations from India]''. PLoS Genetics. 2 (12): e215. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0020215. ISSN 1553-7390.</small>
</div>
</div>

<!-------------MOBILE VERSION ---------------------->
<div id="mf-banner">
<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">
[[File:Greater pakistan.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%; font-size:75%;">''Greater Pakistan'', or the ''Greater Indus Territories''. The region encompasses all the states who share a direct racial lineage with one another, distinct from modern North and South Indians.</div>]]
<small>

'''Additional Achievements'''
:*[[File:Nobel Prize.png|8px]] Pakistan was the first Muslim country to receive the Nobel Prize in a science related field (Physics; '''1979''').
:*[[File:Nuclear-34997 960 720.png|8px]] Pakistan was the first Muslim country to invent their own nuclear bombs. Secretly in '''1977''', publicly in '''1998'''. 
:**<small>This is spite of sanctions and no external help; see ''[[Project-706/726 Pakistani Nuclear Weapons Project]]'' for details.</small>

'''Articles'''
:*Parvez Mahmood (May 17th, 2019). ''[https://www.thefridaytimes.com/our-lost-heritage-i/?fbclid=IwAR2MEoTm4QfQaESiqgaSEYlvM9zH5q3q0joJBXOackyghN2MWEVyWSviQSE Our lost heritage – I]''. The Friday Times. ''[http://archive.is/aEe0y Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved July 19th, 2019.
:*Parvez Mahmood (May 24th, 2019). ''[https://www.thefridaytimes.com/our-lost-heritage-ii/ Our lost heritage – II]''. The Friday Times. ''[http://archive.is/Jvhfq Archive.is Link]''. Retrieved July 19th, 2019.

'''Books'''
:*Mukhtar Ahmed (2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-qLTBAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%22Mukhtar+Ahmed%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj65cKAxK_kAhUOO8AKHRIjDKkQ6AEIMTAB#v=onepage&q&f=false Ancient Pakistan - An Archaeological History: Volume I: The Stone Age]''. 478 pages. Foursome Group. ISBN 978-1-4954-9047-7.
:*Mukhtar Ahmed (2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=HbvTBAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA4&dq=ancient+pakistan+-+an+archaeological+history+Mukhtar+Ahmed&ots=jBA9wrMUq-&sig=weKKS1hOy6Bkwc67qE-iNMFo8RI#v=onepage&q=ancient%20pakistan%20-%20an%20archaeological%20history%20Mukhtar%20Ahmed&f=false Ancient Pakistan - An Archaeological History: Volume II: A Prelude to Civilization]''. 500 pages. Foursome Group. ISBN 978-1-4959-4130-6.
:*Mukhtar Ahmed (2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=3qvVBAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA5&dq=ancient+pakistan+-+an+archaeological+history+Mukhtar+Ahmed&ots=p-3K40fyeC&sig=MHes1w53RFYocNsHP9i6mDQ8wIo#v=onepage&q=ancient%20pakistan%20-%20an%20archaeological%20history%20Mukhtar%20Ahmed&f=false Ancient Pakistan - an Archaeological History: Volume III: Harappan Civilization - the Material Culture]''. 480 pages. Foursome Group. ISBN 978-1-4959-6643-9.
:*Mukhtar Ahmed (2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=FbLVBAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA5&dq=ancient+pakistan+-+an+archaeological+history+Mukhtar+Ahmed&ots=CO7gUo67Mg&sig=iZf83qaWOt00GSekFonc9PmfGjE#v=onepage&q=ancient%20pakistan%20-%20an%20archaeological%20history%20Mukhtar%20Ahmed&f=false Ancient Pakistan - An Archaeological History: Volume IV: Harappan Civilization - Theoretical and the Abstract]''. 480 pages. Foursome Group. ISBN 978-1-4960-8208-4.
:*Mukhtar Ahmed (2014). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=huTVBAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ancient+pakistan+Mukhtar+Ahmed+%22the+end+of%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiysrLHxa_kAhWKilwKHWd7AcIQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=ancient%20pakistan%20Mukhtar%20Ahmed%20%22the%20end%20of%22&f=false Ancient Pakistan - An Archaeological History: Volume V: The End of the Harappan Civilization]''. 250 pages. Foursome Group. ISBN 978-1-4997-0982-7.

'''Related Articles'''
:*[[File:Cscr-featured.png|8px]] [[List of Inventions and Discoveries in Mechanics During the Islamic Golden Age|List of Inventions and Discoveries in '''''Mechanics''''' During the Islamic Golden Age]]
:*[[File:Cscr-featured.png|8px]] [[List of Inventions and Discoveries in Medicine During the Islamic Golden Age|List of Inventions and Discoveries in '''''Medicine''''' During the Islamic Golden Age]]
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*<small>Rosenberg, Noah A.; Mahajan, Saurabh; Gonzalez-Quevedo, Catalina; Blum, Michael G. B.; Nino-Rosales, Laura; Ninis, Vasiliki; Das, Parimal; Hegde, Madhuri; Molinari, Laura; Zapata, Gladys; Weber, James L.; Belmont, John W.; Patel, Pragna I. (2006). ''[https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.0020215 Low Levels of Genetic Divergence across Geographically and Linguistically Diverse Populations from India]''. PLoS Genetics. 2 (12): e215. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0020215. ISSN 1553-7390.</small>
</div>
</div>

==Sources==
===References===
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===Footnotes===
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==Acknowledgements==
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''This is dedicated to a special friend of mine. His name is Zain. Thank you for being there for me when I needed someone. You gave me a sense of direction when I was lost. You helped me reaffirm my faith. And you brought happiness and cheer to me at a time I was unable to find any. I'll never forget that. Thank you for helping me through the tough times. Thank you for bringing me cheer. And thank you for helping me pass.''—''December 8th, 2019.''
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==External Links==
{{Template:Islamic Golden Age}}