View source for The Unknown Muslim Victims of Japanese Unit 731 in WWII (1932—1945)

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According to population estimates, China after World War II should have had a Muslim population of more than 40 million,<ref>''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LNJLAQAAMAAJ&q=Chinese+Muslim+731&dq=Chinese+Muslim+731&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwil-IWZzZrRAhXcM1AKHfzWAPQQ6AEIHDAA The Case of the Forty Million Missing Muslims: A Letter from Willard A. Hanna]''. American Universities Field Staff. 1956.</ref> but today it is hardly close to this. What happened to these missing Muslims is unknown. Some were certainly killed when the Japanese invaded, and others may have met more sinister ends. Unit 731 used a variety of different ethnicities for experimentation. Some certainly may have been Muslim, and might have met their deaths here. 
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===Chinese Muslims===
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<small style="border:1px solid; padding:1px 3px; background:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF; white-space:nowrap">Nanjing Massacre:—</small> When the Japanese invaded Nanjing and proceeded to carry out the Nanjing massacre (November 1937—February 1938),<ref name="HondaGibney20152">Katsuichi Honda; Frank Gibney; Karen Sandness (24 February 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X8nKBgAAQBAJ&pg=PR25&dq=nanjing+massacre+took+place+1937&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjspcSrpabOAhXII8AKHRBYAfMQ6AEIMTAD#v=onepage&q=nanjing%20massacre%20took%20place%201937&f=false The Nanjing Massacre: A Japanese Journalist Confronts Japan's National Shame]''. Routledge. pp. 25. ISBN 978-1-317-45566-0.</ref> many of their victims were also Muslims.<ref name="HondaGibney2015">Katsuichi Honda; Frank Gibney; Karen Sandness (24 February 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X8nKBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA267&dq=Nanjing+massacre+Muslims&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiu5fPYnabOAhUVM8AKHeIDC2YQ6AEIHjAA#v=onepage&q=Nanjing%20massacre%20Muslims&f=false The Nanjing Massacre: A Japanese Journalist Confronts Japan's National Shame]''. Routledge. pp. 267. ISBN 978-1-317-45566-0.</ref> Pre-war census had put the Muslim population with at least 40,000 people, but after the massacre, this population had been near totally annihilated.<ref name="HondaGibney2015"/> Chinese Muslims either fled in the evacuations from the city or were killed.<ref name="HondaGibney2015"/> However there were still Muslim burial squads within the city that had organized themselves for the purposes of honouring the Muslim dead.<ref name="HondaGibney2015"/> The burial squads had immense trouble finding who was a Muslim and who was not.<ref name="HondaGibney2015"/> Therefore their only choice was to bury only identifiable Muslims.<ref name="HondaGibney2015"/> What the Muslims of Nanjing had already done was to cover their dead with cloth, and marked the bodies with earth, and thereafter placed an identifiable marker.<ref name="HondaGibney2015"/> Many of the Muslims that had been killed were found near mosques throughout the city.<ref name="HondaGibney2015"/> Many of these Muslims had been raped to death by the Japanese and many of the bodies had been stabbed with bayonets, slashed, beheaded, or shot.<ref name="HondaGibney2015"/> To add insult to injury, the burial squads (which were organised into ten or so men) had to get the permission of the ''"Society for the Maintainance of Order"'' (colloquially termed ''"traitor"'' Chinese) in order to be allowed to transport the bodies to several cemeteries near the ''"Refugee Zone"''.<ref name="HondaGibney2015"/> Aside from the obvious markers, there was also no clear way of finding what had happened to other Chinese Muslims; they could have been taken away in groups and murdered,<ref name="HondaGibney2015"/>  or possibly taken for experimentation with Unit 731.
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||[[File:Japanese looting near a gate, Nanking massacre.JPG|thumb|center|150px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">Japanese troops looting the corpses of Chinese at Nanjing (1937).</div>]]
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A particularly harrowing tale of how badly the Japanese treated Chinese civilians was illustrated through the diary of a reverend who witnessed first hand the murder of several generations of an entire family of Muslims in Nanjing, which resulted in only two survivors.
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:''During the Japanese reign of terror in Nanking - which, by the way, continues to this day to a considerable degree - the Reverend John Magee, a member of the American Episcopal Church Mission who has been here for almost a quarter of a century, took motion pictures that eloquently bear witness to the atrocities committed by the Japanese. One will have to wait and see whether the highest officers in the Japanese army succeed, as they have indicated, in stopping the activities of their troops, which continue even today.'' 

:''On December 13th, about 30 soldiers came to a Chinese house at #5 Hsing Lu Koo in the southeastern part of Nanking, and demanded entrance. The door was open by the landlord, a Mohammedan [Muslim] named Ha. They killed him immediately with a revolver and also Mrs. Ha, who knelt before them after Ha's death, begging them not to kill anyone else. Mrs. ha asked them why they killed her husband and they shot her. Mrs. Hsia was dragged out from under a table in the guest hall where she had tried to hide with her one-year old baby. After being stripped and raped by one or more men, she was bayoneted in the chest, and then had a bottle thrust into her vagina, the baby being killed with a bayonet.'' 

:''Some soldiers then went to the next room where were Mrs. Hsia's parents, aged 76 and 74, and he two daughters aged 16 and 14. They were about to rape the girls when the grandmother tried to protect them. The soldiers killed her with a revolver. The grandfather grasped the body of his wife and was killed. The two girls were then stripped, the older being raped by 2-3 men, and the younger by 3. The older girl was stabbed afterwards and a cane was rammed into her vagina. The younger girl was bayoneted also but was spared the horrible treatment that had been meted out to her sister and her mother.'' 

:''The soldiers then bayoneted another sister of between 7-8, who was also in the room. The last murders in the house were of Ha's two children, aged 4 and 2 years respectively. The older was bayoneted and the younger split down through the head with a sword. After being wounded the 8 year old girl crawled to the next room where lay the body of her mother. Here she stayed for 14 days with her 4 year old sister who had escaped unharmed. The two children lived on puffed rice and the rice crusts that form in the pan when the rice is cooked. ''

:''It was from the older of these children that the photographer was able to get part of the story, and verify and correct certain details told him by a neighbour and a relative. The child said the soldiers came every day taking things from the house, but the two children were not discovered as they hid under some old sheets''

:''...[A]fter 14 days the old woman...returned to the neighbourhood and found the two children. It was she who led the photographer to an open space where the bodies had been taken afterwards. Through questioning her and Mrs. Hsia's brother and the little girl, a clear knowledge of the terrible traged was gained. The picture shows the bodies of the 16 and 14 year old girls, each lying in a group of people slain at the same time. Mrs. Hsia and her baby are shown last.''

::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::—Rev. John Magee, American Episcopal Church Mission, and resident in China for 25 years.<ref name="Lu2004">Suping Lu (1 November 2004). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0a7UAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA118&dq=Mrs.+Ha+asked+them+why+they+killed+her+husband+and+they+shot+her.+Mrs.+Hsia+was+dragged+out+from+under+a+table+in+the+guest+hall+where+she+had+tried+to+hide+with+her+1+year+old+baby.&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjsrt3cyqbOAhXLKMAKHYOyAkoQ6AEIHjAA#v=onepage&q=Mrs.%20Ha%20asked%20them%20why%20they%20killed%20her%20husband%20and%20they%20shot%20her.%20Mrs.%20Hsia%20was%20dragged%20out%20from%20under%20a%20table%20in%20the%20guest%20hall%20where%20she%20had%20tried%20to%20hide%20with%20her%201%20year%20old%20baby.&f=false They Were in Nanjing: The Nanjing Massacre Witnessed by American and British Nationals]''. Hong Kong University Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-962-209-685-1.</ref><ref name="Stich2010">Rodney Stich (2010). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d-44dpgvU0YC&pg=PA10 Japanese and U.S. World War II Plunder and Intrigue]''. Silverpeak Enterprises. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-932438-70-6.</ref> 
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<small style="border:1px solid; padding:1px 3px; background:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF; white-space:nowrap">Survivor:—</small> The little 8-year old girl that survived,<ref name="xiabbc"/> would go on to live well into her eighties, and is still currently alive.<ref name="xia75">''[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-06/07/content_449425.htm Survivor tells of Nanjing massacre horrors]''. July 7th, 2005. China Daily. Retrieved August 4th, 2016.</ref> In 2005, the China Daily wrote a biographical piece of her ordeal that had occurred 67 years prior to the interview.<ref name="xia75"/> In 2005, she was 75 years old, and recounted the story of the murder of her family members and neighbours.<ref name="xia75"/> Horrendously, Japanese revisionist historians Higashinakano Osamu and Magsumura Goshio questioned the veracity of her family's murder during the mid-1990s, and the overall massacre at Nanjing.<ref name="xia75"/> The accusations prompted her to act so much so that she sued the books publishers in Chian for ¥800,000 yuan ($96,600 dollars) in 2000; exclaiming ''"I survived from the pile of dead bodies, how could I be a fake witness?...I just want to be healthy so I can sue them to the end"''.<ref name="xia75"/> The Chinese themselves had previously caved into Japanese pressure, as China needed trade in the 1970s, and had therefore dropped wartime reparation claims.<ref name="xia75"/> It was not until the 1990s did China finally pluck up the courage to challenge the Japanese worldview.<ref name="xia75"/> This was in direct response to the Japanese becoming nationalistic, with right-wing parties growing even more boisterous in the politics of the island nation.<ref name="xia75"/> The BBC reported that ''"[i]n tears, she told a news conference how Japanese soldiers slaughtered seven out of nine members of her immediate family, and how she heard the cries of her sister as she was raped with her mother"''.<ref name="xiabbc">''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1047188.stm Nanjing survivor sues Japanese authors]''. Wednesday, November 29th, 2000. Retrieved August 4th, 2016.</ref><ref group="n.">She eventually won the ruling against the Japanese authors, who represented Asia University, Japan. She had originally sued for ¥15 million yen, but received ¥4 million yen ($44,500 dollars) instead from the Tokyo District Court and The Supreme Court of Japan.
#''[http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2009/02/07/news/author-on-nanjing-loses-libel-appeal/#.V6M0HPkrI2w Author on Nanjing loses libel appeal]''. February 7th, 2009. The Japan Times. Retrieved August 4th, 2016.
#''[http://en.people.cn/90001/90776/90883/6587967.html Chinese hail Nanjing Massacre witness' libel suit victory]''. February 9th, 2009. People's Daily Online. Retrieved August 4th, 2016.</ref> A total ofbetween 50,000—340,000 Chinese died in the massacre.<ref name="Ristaino2008">Marcia R. Ristaino (2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MbeT3r-bAfUC&pg=PA91&dq=nanjing+60,000+300,000+massacre&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjIt9Tj66fOAhXCtxQKHbvjCvgQ6AEIHjAA#v=onepage&q=nanjing%2060%2C000%20300%2C000%20massacre&f=false The Jacquinot Safe Zone: Wartime Refugees in Shanghai]''. Stanford University Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-8047-5793-5.</ref>
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||[[File:2fd878f745f14ddc8cfc2b0955426e4f.jpg|thumb|center|120px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">Xia Shuqin, 84 years old now.</div>]]
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===Organization===
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<small style="border:1px solid; padding:1px 3px; background:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF; white-space:nowrap">Bio-Research:—</small> Unit 731 was a Japanese biological warfare<ref name="McCallum2008">Jack Edward McCallum (2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5BXB9QtUfFQC&pg=PA337&dq=Unit+731&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi-nJe5lIfKAhUHyRQKHRXkAbsQ6AEISzAH#v=onepage&q=Unit%20731&f=false Military Medicine: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century]''. ABC-CLIO. p. 337. ISBN 978-1-85109-693-0.</ref> and research unit based in China, Manchuria, consisting of several divisions. It's origins lay in 1894,<ref name="McCallum2008"/> when Japanese medical officers performed particularly poorly during combat with Chinese forces in East Asia.<ref name="McCallum2008"/> Japanese physicians were eventually sent over to Europe by the Japanese government in order to learn modern medical techniques.<ref name="McCallum2008"/> The Japanese would surpass the Europeans and arguably,<ref name="McCallum2008"/> had the best military medical system the world have ever seen.<ref name="McCallum2008"/> This was especially the case with controlling infectious disease, pathogens and epidemics.<ref name="McCallum2008"/> Fascination with bacteria grew to dangerous heights and eventually lead to bacterial weaponization.<ref name="McCallum2008"/> In the year of 1932, the ''"Epidemic Prevention Laboratory"'', otherwise known as ''"Unit 731"'' (headed by General and Surgeon-doctor<ref name="CroddyWirtz2005">Eric Croddy; James J. Wirtz (2005). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZzlNgS70OHAC&pg=PA295&dq=Unit+731&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwia3bbFm4fKAhWBOxQKHaGfAQI4ChDoAQgwMAI#v=onepage&q=Unit%20731&f=false Weapons of Mass Destruction: Chemical and biological weapons]''. ABC-CLIO. p. 295. ISBN 978-1-85109-490-5.</ref> Shiro Ishii), moved from their headquarters in Tokyo to Pingfang, China,<ref name="McCallum2008"/> where they would conduct biological research on Chinese civilians,<ref name="McCallum2008"/> It consisted of 150 laboratory buildings and 5 external campsites.<ref name="Enemark2007">Christian Enemark (11 June 2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aDT-qkChBnAC&pg=PA87&dq=unit+731+shot+wounds&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjDw72GnY3KAhVDvhQKHfu_ANUQ6AEIPDAF#v=onepage&q=unit%20731%20shot%20wounds&f=false Disease and Security: Natural Plagues and Biological Weapons in East Asia]''. Routledge. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-134-10133-7.</ref> A secret military police force, known as the "Kempeitei",<ref name="McCallum2008"/> abducted thousands of Chinese civilians for Unit 731, who's specialty lay in typhoid experimentation;<ref name="McCallum2008"/> as well as glanders disease,<ref name="McCallum2008"/> hemorrhagic fever<ref name="McCallum2008"/> and bubonic plague.<ref name="McCallum2008"/> It was set up under the premise it was a Japanese ''"lumber mill"'',<ref name="Neil Connor (February 12, 2015).">Neil Connor (February 12, 2015). ''[http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/02/12/national/history/70-years-unit-731s-wartime-atrocities-fester-chinas-memory/#.VohUtPmLSKp 70 years on, Unit 731’s wartime atrocities fester in China’s memory]''. The Japan Times. Retrieved January, 2nd, 2016.</ref> and victims were referred to as "logs" ("maruta"/丸太).<ref name="Chauhan2004"/><ref name="Gruhl2011"/><ref name="Fridell2007">Ron Fridell (1 September 2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Xuu6HqD-qpQC&pg=PA46&dq=pressure+chambers+unit+731&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjot7OUoo3KAhWMWRQKHVEUCC0Q6AEIPzAD#v=onepage&q=pressure%20chambers%20unit%20731&f=false Prisoners of War]''. Marshall Cavendish. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-7614-2577-9.</ref> Additionally, those who were assigned to the unit were told ''"don't look, don't listen, don't tell"''.<ref name="Chauhan2004">Sharad S. Chauhan (1 January 2004). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MGZwgxoHxCAC&pg=PA191&dq=Unit+731&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwia3bbFm4fKAhWBOxQKHaGfAQI4ChDoAQgrMAE#v=onepage&q=Unit%20731&f=false Biological Weapons]''. APH Publishing. p. 191-192. ISBN 978-81-7648-732-0.</ref>
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*Division 1: Bubonic Plague, Cholera, Anthrax, Tuberculosis
*Division 2: Biological Weapons & Invention
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*Division 3: Artillery Shells & Ammunition Production
*Division 4: Lethal Chemicals Producton
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*Division 5: Unit 731 Personnel Training
*Division 6: Administrative Division of Camps, Medical Supplies & Equipment
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<small style="border:1px solid; padding:1px 3px; background:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF; white-space:nowrap">Victim Treatment:—</small> Victims were kept shackled, but were well fed and exercised; former staff at the facility stated that this was because ''"[u]nless you work with a healthy body, you can't get results"''.<ref name="Felton2012">Mark Felton (19 July 2012). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pg30akVyjZgC&pg=PT36&dq=Unit+731+was+divided+into+eight+divisions:&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjkyuPr3YnKAhWGShQKHbhVBVEQ6AEIIDAA#v=onepage&q=Unit%20731%20was%20divided%20into%20eight%20divisions%3A&f=false The Devil's Doctors: Japanese Human Experiments on Allied Prisoners of War]''. Casemate Publishers. pp. 36–37. ISBN 978-1-78303-262-4.</ref> Men, women and children were used.<ref name="Felton2012"/> It is notable that Japanese doctors refused to allow the use of anaethetics,<ref name="Gruhl2011">Werner Gruhl (31 December 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zNN6M97vYMEC&pg=PA81&dq=japanese+unit+731+weapons+testing&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjY5rPShIvKAhXBXBQKHUltCYg4ChDoAQgfMAA#v=onepage&q=japanese%20unit%20731%20weapons%20testing&f=false Imperial Japan's World War Two: 1931-1945]''. Transaction Publishers. pp. 81–86. ISBN 978-1-4128-0926-9.</ref> believing they would interfere with research, and so were not used when subjects were dismembered.<ref name="Felton2012"/> A medicial assistant working in this area of research said test subjects knew it was ''"over"'' for them and went along quietly.<ref name="Felton2012"/> However upon seeing a scalpel the subject would repeatedly scream, with their face ''"twisting"'' in agony.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Approximately 70% of the victims were of Chinese origin, and 30% were a mixture of Soviet, Mongolian and Korean.<ref name="oxford">''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XXkMAQAAMAAJ&q=unit+731+70%25+Chinese&dq=unit+731+70%25+Chinese&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjpo833yIvKAhWD7RQKHf7kA5kQ6AEIKTAA Asiaweek]''. Asiaweek Limited. May 1982. Volume 8. p. 52</ref> The ''"Oxford Textbook of Clinical Research Ethics''" (2011), in a sub section written by Takashi Tsuchiya, claim however that most were Chinese and some were soldiers of the Allies, who were mostly American, Australian or New Zealander.<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011">Ezekiel J. Emanuel; Christine C. Grady; Robert A. Crouch; Reidar K. Lie, Franklin G. Miller, David D. Wendler (4 January 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vKFYAtcLAxgC&pg=PA34&dq=japanese+unit+731+weapons+testing&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiX3fPChIvKAhXM6xQKHYA_DIcQ6AEIRjAH#v=onepage&q=japanese%20unit%20731%20weapons%20testing&f=false The Oxford Textbook of Clinical Research Ethics]''. Oxford University Press. pp. 31–45. ISBN 978-0-19-972166-5. </ref> It's annual budget was $80 million dollars (in 2011 dollars), with 3,000 scientists and researchers employed under Dr. Ishii for a total of 10 years (bringing total funding up to $800 million dollars).<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/> It was said to have been lavished so well that it was the most luxurious research center in all of Japan's empire.<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/> Those employed at Unit 731 had half the budget as payment, while the rest went on research.<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/> All surviving data was then sold to the USA for ¥250,000 yen ($2 million in 2011 dollars).<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/>
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||[[File:Unit 731 aerial photo.jpg|thumb|center|150px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">Unit 731 aerial photo. A crematorium is visible.</div>]]
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|[[File:731child.jpg|thumb|center|120px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">Japanese dissecting a small child, after vivisection.</div>]]
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<small style="border:1px solid; padding:1px 3px; background:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF; white-space:nowrap">Death Toll:—</small> Unit 731 developed a delivery systems for weaponized bubonic plague (as well as anthrax, and tetanus) using fleas contained in porcelain bombs;<ref name="Enemark2007"/><ref name="WilliamsWallace1989">Peter Williams; David Wallace (1989). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2Ls4AAAAIAAJ&q=unit+731+shot+wounds&dq=unit+731+shot+wounds&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjDw72GnY3KAhVDvhQKHfu_ANUQ6AEIMDAD Unit 731: Japan's Secret Biological Warfare in World War II]''. Free Press. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-02-935301-1.</ref> embedded in cotton, rice and wheat.<ref name="McCallum2008"/> These were dropped across several cities in Chechiang.<ref name="McCallum2008"/> This first attempt at infecting the Chinese ended in almost total failure; causing the deaths of only 24 people.<ref name="McCallum2008"/> Ningbo, Zhejiang Province (1940) and Changde (1941) were later used as test cities, but these were far more deadly, killing an estimated 400,000 Chinese.<ref name="Felton2012"/> The numbers estimated for germ warfare have been somewhat disputed, ranging from 50,000 to 250,000 by Western historians.<ref name="Gruhl2011"/> Three years after the war had ended, there were still many Chinese dying from these bombings.<ref name="Felton2012"/> By the end of the war it's death toll exceeded that of the atomic bombings of Nagasaki and Hiroshima.<ref name="Felton2012"/> The Chinese were not only affected but Japanese; approximately 1,700 Japanese soldiers were also killed in a Cholera outbreak that backfired and infected 10,000 Japanese soldiers in Changteh (1941).<ref name="Piehler2013">G. Kurt Piehler (24 July 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5yVzAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1627&dq=japanese+unit+731+weapons+testing&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjY5rPShIvKAhXBXBQKHUltCYg4ChDoAQglMAE#v=onepage&q=japanese%20unit%20731%20weapons%20testing&f=false Encyclopedia of Military Science]''. SAGE Publications. p. 1627. ISBN 978-1-4522-7632-8.</ref> Former employees of Unit 731 also even went on to murder Japanese citizens after the war.<ref name="Inc.1989">Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. (December 1989). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8wUAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA47&dq=unit+731&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiXgrSy1onKAhVBuhQKHVcaAqcQ6AEIJTAB#v=onepage&q=unit%20731&f=false Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]''. Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. pp. 47. ISSN 00963402.</ref> In late January 1948 for example, one of it's unbeknownst members entered a Tokyo bank where the suspect recognized an employee suffering from symptoms of dysentery.<ref name="Inc.1989"/> He tricked all 17 staff members into letting him administer a toxic poison,<ref name="Inc.1989"/> killing 12 of them immediately.<ref name="Inc.1989"/> He made off with a ¥160,000 yen in cash.<ref name="Inc.1989"/><ref group="n.">Dr. Ishii was even called in when it became clear that the method of administration and death was similar to that done in Manchuria several years prior at his facility.
#Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. (December 1989). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8wUAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA47&dq=unit+731&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiXgrSy1onKAhVBuhQKHVcaAqcQ6AEIJTAB#v=onepage&q=unit%20731&f=false Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]''. Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. pp. 47. ISSN 00963402.</ref>
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===Known Experiments===
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[[File:Interogation.jpg|thumb|right|200px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">The "Kempeitei" (secret police) would round up Chinese and political dissidents for Dr. Ishii's experiments. Ishii was very well funded by the Japanese government.</div>]]
*<small style="border: 1px solid;padding:1px 3px;white-space:nowrap">Live Vivisection Research:—</small> Body organs such as the stomach (including that of the oesophagus) were removed and reattached to the intestines.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Infants in particular were tied down, and were said to have been screaming for their mothers while experiments were being done on their bodies.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Brains, kidney's and lungs were also removed under these vivisections.<ref name="Felton2012"/> In one instance, a test subject was immediately tied down, and had an axe driven through his skull and had his brain removed upon short notice.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Japanese who even contracted disease during experiments were also dissected and vivisected.<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/>

*<small style="border: 1px solid;padding:1px 3px;white-space:nowrap">Blood Loss & Amputation Research:—</small> Limbs were amputated to study the loss of blood from the human body.<ref name="Felton2012"/> In some cases surgeons would reattach torn limbs to different parts of the body, including reattaching legs to arm sockets.<ref name="Felton2012"/> In other instances, limbs were defrosted to cause the onset of gangrene which would never be treated.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Defrosting, gangrene and pain were also studied extensively.<ref name="Felton2012"/><ref name="Takemae2003"/> Additionally, horse urine was injected into the kidneys (presumably to study the effects of renal clearance), gasoline and prussic acid,<ref name="Winchester1998">Simon Winchester (26 February 1998). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zJari8SimAUC&pg=PT179&dq=unit+731+horse+urine+was+injected&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjouP6_m43KAhXM7BQKHdmbAGUQ6AEIODAE#v=onepage&q=unit%20731%20horse%20urine%20was%20injected&f=false The River at the Centre of the World: A Journey Up the Yangtze, and Back in Chinese Time]''. Penguin UK. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-14-193790-8.</ref> as well as air to cause blood clots.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Blood transfusions were also done with various blood types.<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/><ref name="Kennedy2007">David M. Kennedy (2 October 2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0bRaa7UuD6EC&pg=PA655&dq=Unit+731+blood+transfusions&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiY7bWrmY3KAhWEXhQKHcWzC_EQ6AEIKTAC#v=onepage&q=Unit%20731%20blood%20transfusions&f=false The Library of Congress World War II Companion]''. Simon and Schuster. p. 655. ISBN 978-1-4165-5306-9.</ref> For instance a person with "Group O" blood was transfused with someone who had "Group A" blood,<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/> leading to immune attack and death.

*<small style="border: 1px solid;padding:1px 3px;white-space:nowrap">Freezing Limbs & Gangrene Research:—</small> Freezing experiments were also conducted in relation to amputations;<ref name="Felton2012"/><ref name="Takemae2003"/> where limbs were frozen and then cut off and then reattached.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Test subjects were also soaked with water and then tied naked to stakes during the winter months in order to accelerate the effects of freezing.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Confirmation of limbs freezing checked by hitting body parts with a stick until a hard and hollow sound could be heard emanating from the limb.<ref name="Felton2012"/>  In another instance two Chinese clawed each other when put in a -40<sup>o</sup>C to -50<sup>o</sup>C chamber.<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/> This research is still being used to study the effects of frostbite.<ref name="Felton2012"/>

[[File:Soldiers-unit-731.jpg|thumb|left|200px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">One of the most horrific experiments was freezing subjects until a hollow sound could be heard when they were struck with a stick.</div>]]
::::::::::*<small style="border: 1px solid;padding:1px 3px;white-space:nowrap">Weapons Testing & Development Research:—</small> Test subjects were tied to stakes at different weapons testing ranges in order to test the effects of grenade blast radii.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Others were directly shot and had their exit wound and entries studied,<ref name="Stannard2004"> Louis Stannard (2004). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iExPk4LRHwoC&dq=unit+731+gun+shot+wounds&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=gun+shot+wounds China Diaries: A Novel]''. iUniverse. p. 214. ISBN 978-0-595-66652-2.</ref><ref name="gunshotphysician">''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dsYrAAAAYAAJ&q=unit+731+gun+shot+wounds&dq=unit+731+gun+shot+wounds&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj0r7PdoI3KAhUKaRQKHTYrDFUQ6AEISjAG Military Chaplains' Review]''. Chaplains, U.S. Army. 1991. p. 13.</ref> later being killed if they survived.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Flamethrowers were also used on test subjects in order to find the most effective range for deployment on field.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Human subjects were also placed into glass gas chambers;<ref name="Gruhl2011"/> for the purposes of chemical weapons testing in the form of gases.<ref name="Felton2012"/> There were even chambers used for pressure testing and G-force experiments until they died violently.<ref name="Felton2012"/><ref name="Gruhl2011"/><ref name="NieGuo2013"> Jing Bao Nie; Nanyan Guo; Mark Selden; Arthur Kleinman (3 July 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mYDFBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT110&dq=pressure+chambers+unit+731&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjot7OUoo3KAhWMWRQKHVEUCC0Q6AEILjAA#v=onepage&q=pressure%20chambers%20unit%20731&f=false Japan's Wartime Medical Atrocities: Comparative Inquiries in Science, History, and Ethics]''. Routledge. p. 110. ISBN 978-1-136-95259-3.</ref><ref name="MooreSholes2011">Joe Moore; Joe Sholes (1 September 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fgTse0yOb4gC&pg=PA236&dq=pressure+chambers+unit+731&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjot7OUoo3KAhWMWRQKHVEUCC0Q6AEISjAF#v=onepage&q=pressure%20chambers%20unit%20731&f=false The 731 Legacy]''. Llewellyn Worldwide. p. 236. ISBN 978-0-7387-2045-6.</ref><ref group="n.">Camera men would record Chinese dying slowly in pressure chambers.
#Sheldon H. Harris (3 May 2002). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-QSIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA71&dq=pressure+chambers+unit+731&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjot7OUoo3KAhWMWRQKHVEUCC0Q6AEIOTAC#v=onepage&q=pressure%20chambers%20unit%20731&f=false Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932-45, and the American Cover-up]''. Routledge. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-134-82751-0.</ref>

::::::::::*<small style="border: 1px solid;padding:1px 3px;white-space:nowrap">Biological & Chemical Research:—</small> Victims were sent to biological and chemical testing sites;<ref name="Felton2012"/> where they were exposed to lethal doses of pathogens and chemicals.<ref name="Felton2012"/> These were later developed into bombs which were regularly thrown from aircraft onto densely populated Chinese civilian areas in order to test epidemic capabilities.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Test subjects were also made into flea producing factories;<ref name="Felton2012"/> where billions of fleas were bred for the development of biological bombs through hosting.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Approximately 3,000,000—8,000,000 rats, and other animals were infected for epidemic research and flea production.<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/><ref name="Li">Peter Li. ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2J0ZqRZw-QQC&pg=PA296&dq=units+731+rats+million&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi7saSbpY3KAhUCXRQKHX7XBokQ6AEILjAC#v=onepage&q=units%20731%20rats%20million&f=false Japanese War Crimes: The Search for Justice]''. Transaction Publishers. p. 296. ISBN 978-1-4128-2683-9.</ref><ref name="Gruhl20112">Werner Gruhl (31 December 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zNN6M97vYMEC&pg=PA81&dq=units+731+rats+million&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi7saSbpY3KAhUCXRQKHX7XBokQ6AEIIjAA#v=onepage&q=units%20731%20rats%20million&f=false Imperial Japan's World War Two: 1931-1945]''. Transaction Publishers. p. 81. ISBN 978-1-4128-0926-9.</ref>

::::::::::*<small style="border: 1px solid;padding:1px 3px;white-space:nowrap">Sexual Research:—</small> Prisoners were tricked into receiving vaccinations;<ref name="Felton2012"/> when they were really injected with sexually transmitted diseases such as gonorrhea and syphyllis.<ref name="Felton2012"/><ref name="Takemae2003"> Eiji Takemae (2003). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ba5hXsfeyhMC&pg=PA255&dq=pressure+chambers+unit+731&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjot7OUoo3KAhWMWRQKHVEUCC0Q6AEIUDAG#v=onepage&q=pressure%20chambers%20unit%20731&f=false Allied Occupation of Japan]''. A&C Black. p. 255. ISBN 978-0-8264-1521-9.</ref> Although penicillins were available during this time, the Japanese simply let these diseases develop and then studied the effects.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Transmission of the diseases was also by means of rape.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Doctors at the test site would rape prisoners in order to get them pregnant and then study the results.<ref name="Felton2012"/> These women would be dissected alive either before or after birth, and their fetus's removed.<ref name="Felton2012"/><ref name="WilliamsWallace19892">Peter Williams; David Wallace (1989). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2Ls4AAAAIAAJ&q=unit+731+venereal+disease&dq=unit+731+venereal+disease&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwislIz3rI3KAhWCORQKHSmKCuwQ6AEIJTAB Unit 731: Japan's Secret Biological Warfare in World War II]''. Free Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-02-935301-1.</ref> They were also infected with other venereal diseases.<ref name="Gruhl2011"/><ref group="n.">The purpose of this research was to investigate venereal disease, which was a massive problem for Japanese soldiers who were ordered to rape civilians. As a result many contracted venereal diseases. 
#Peter Williams; David Wallace (1989). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2Ls4AAAAIAAJ&q=unit+731+venereal+disease&dq=unit+731+venereal+disease&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwislIz3rI3KAhWCORQKHSmKCuwQ6AEIJTAB Unit 731: Japan's Secret Biological Warfare in World War II]''. Free Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-02-935301-1.</ref>
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===Known Members===
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<small style="border:1px solid; padding:1px 3px; background:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF; white-space:nowrap">Employees:—</small> The biological weapons complex consisted of 3,000 employees.<ref name="Enemark2007"/> Manchuria was chosen because of it's poor sanitation conditions, and previous outbreaks of infectious diseases such as Cholera (1919) and the Pneumonic Plague (1910, 1920, 1927).<ref name="Enemark2007"/> It is notable that the Japanese brutality of their enemies was unusually equal across all nationalities.<ref name="CarmichaelMaguire2015">Cathie Carmichael; Richard C. Maguire (1 May 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6rvlCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA106&dq=unit+731+shot+wounds&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjDw72GnY3KAhVDvhQKHfu_ANUQ6AEIKzAC#v=onepage&q=unit%20731%20shot%20wounds&f=false The Routledge History of Genocide]''. Routledge. p. 107. ISBN 978-1-317-51484-8.</ref> The first prosecutions against Unit 731 were when 12 soldiers and scientists were tried in the Soviet Union (in Khabarovsk, Siberia), where the unit's activities first began seeping into the public domain;<ref name="Inc.1989"/> in 1950 trial records were published by the authorities, which stipulated 3,000 Chinese victims and political dissidents were subjected to 10 years worth of experimentation.<ref name="Inc.1989"/> The Americans however, repeatedly attempted to cover this up; primarily because they wanted to use the data for themselves. The United States gave total immunity to anyone who was involved.<ref name="Inc.1989"/> At least 11 cities were attacked, and (according to Western historians) 10,000 people died in these experiments, although Chinese and Japanese historians claim a much higher number of 270,000 from 1932 to 1945.<ref name="Drexler2002">Madeline Drexler (6 February 2002). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IE53AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA245&dq=unit+731+venereal+disease&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwislIz3rI3KAhWCORQKHSmKCuwQ6AEIPDAF#v=onepage&q=unit%20731%20venereal%20disease&f=false Secret Agents: The Menace of Emerging Infections]''. Joseph Henry Press. p. 245. ISBN 978-0-309-51085-1.</ref> Notable members include Ryoichi Naito, Masaji Kitano, Hideo Futagi—Founders of Japan Blood Bank,<ref name="「戦争と医学」展実行委員会2008">「戦争と医学」展実行委員会 (April 2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZsFYSLdnG3QC&pg=PA112&dq=Unit+731+blood+transfusions&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiY7bWrmY3KAhWEXhQKHcWzC_EQ6AEIIDAA#v=onepage&q=Unit%20731%20blood%20transfusions&f=false War and Medicine(ウォー・アンド・メディスン)]''. 株式会社　三恵社. pp. 112. ISBN 978-4-88361-618-3.</ref> Kameo Tasaki of the Department of Dermatology and Urology of Machuria Medical College, who was responsible for injection and infection experiments,<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/> Hisato Yoshimura, of the Faculty of Medicine at Kyoto Imperial University, and Kazuharu Tanimura of the Army Medical College in Tokyo<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/> who both oversaw separate freezing experiments using live human beings,<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/> Naco Ikeda, a doctor from Osaka who conducted tetanus and hemorrhagic fever experiments,<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/> Satoshi Sugawara—salt water torture.<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/> Takeshi Ogasawara—air injection.<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/> and Naokiti Suzuki—brain vivisections.<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/> Other members include Yoshio Shinozuka,<ref name="Li2">Peter Li. ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2J0ZqRZw-QQC&pg=PA297&dq=%22member+of+Unit+731%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiV5JmS8qfKAhUM6RQKHTAgDfEQ6AEIIDAA#v=onepage&q=%22member%20of%20Unit%20731%22&f=false Japanese War Crimes: The Search for Justice]''. Transaction Publishers. p. 297. ISBN 978-1-4128-2683-9.</ref> Ueda Yataro<ref name="Tanaka1996">Toshiyuki Tanaka (1996). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bPNmAAAAMAAJ&q=%22member+of+Unit+731%22&dq=%22member+of+Unit+731%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiV5JmS8qfKAhUM6RQKHTAgDfEQ6AEIRzAI Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II]''. WestviewPress. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-8133-2717-4.</ref> and Hisato Yoshimura<ref name="Inc.19892">Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. (December 1989). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8wUAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA47&dq=%22member+of+Unit+731%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiV5JmS8qfKAhUM6RQKHTAgDfEQ6AEIJTAB#v=onepage&q=%22member%20of%20Unit%20731%22&f=false Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]''. Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. p. 47. ISSN 00963402</ref></div>
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According to population estimates, China after World War II should have had a Muslim population of more than 40 million,<ref>''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LNJLAQAAMAAJ&q=Chinese+Muslim+731&dq=Chinese+Muslim+731&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwil-IWZzZrRAhXcM1AKHfzWAPQQ6AEIHDAA The Case of the Forty Million Missing Muslims: A Letter from Willard A. Hanna]''. American Universities Field Staff. 1956.</ref> but today it is hardly close to this. What happened to these missing Muslims is unknown. Some were certainly killed when the Japanese invaded, and others may have met more sinister ends. Unit 731 used a variety of different ethnicities for experimentation. Some certainly may have been Muslim, and might have met their deaths here. 
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==Chinese Muslims==
[[File:Japanese looting near a gate, Nanking massacre.JPG|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">Japanese troops looting the corpses of Chinese at Nanjing (1937).</div>]]
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<small style="border:1px solid; padding:1px 3px; background:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF; white-space:nowrap">Nanjing Massacre:—</small> When the Japanese invaded Nanjing and proceeded to carry out the Nanjing massacre (November 1937—February 1938),<ref name="HondaGibney20152">Katsuichi Honda; Frank Gibney; Karen Sandness (24 February 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X8nKBgAAQBAJ&pg=PR25&dq=nanjing+massacre+took+place+1937&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjspcSrpabOAhXII8AKHRBYAfMQ6AEIMTAD#v=onepage&q=nanjing%20massacre%20took%20place%201937&f=false The Nanjing Massacre: A Japanese Journalist Confronts Japan's National Shame]''. Routledge. pp. 25. ISBN 978-1-317-45566-0.</ref> many of their victims were also Muslims.<ref name="HondaGibney2015">Katsuichi Honda; Frank Gibney; Karen Sandness (24 February 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X8nKBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA267&dq=Nanjing+massacre+Muslims&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiu5fPYnabOAhUVM8AKHeIDC2YQ6AEIHjAA#v=onepage&q=Nanjing%20massacre%20Muslims&f=false The Nanjing Massacre: A Japanese Journalist Confronts Japan's National Shame]''. Routledge. pp. 267. ISBN 978-1-317-45566-0.</ref> Pre-war census had put the Muslim population with at least 40,000 people, but after the massacre, this population had been near totally annihilated.<ref name="HondaGibney2015"/> Chinese Muslims either fled in the evacuations from the city or were killed.<ref name="HondaGibney2015"/> However there were still Muslim burial squads within the city that had organized themselves for the purposes of honouring the Muslim dead.<ref name="HondaGibney2015"/> The burial squads had immense trouble finding who was a Muslim and who was not.<ref name="HondaGibney2015"/> Therefore their only choice was to bury only identifiable Muslims.<ref name="HondaGibney2015"/> What the Muslims of Nanjing had already done was to cover their dead with cloth, and marked the bodies with earth, and thereafter placed an identifiable marker.<ref name="HondaGibney2015"/> Many of the Muslims that had been killed were found near mosques throughout the city.<ref name="HondaGibney2015"/> Many of these Muslims had been raped to death by the Japanese and many of the bodies had been stabbed with bayonets, slashed, beheaded, or shot.<ref name="HondaGibney2015"/> To add insult to injury, the burial squads (which were organised into ten or so men) had to get the permission of the ''"Society for the Maintainance of Order"'' (colloquially termed ''"traitor"'' Chinese) in order to be allowed to transport the bodies to several cemeteries near the ''"Refugee Zone"''.<ref name="HondaGibney2015"/> Aside from the obvious markers, there was also no clear way of finding what had happened to other Chinese Muslims; they could have been taken away in groups and murdered,<ref name="HondaGibney2015"/>  or possibly taken for experimentation with Unit 731.
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A particularly harrowing tale of how badly the Japanese treated Chinese civilians was illustrated through the diary of a reverend who witnessed first hand the murder of several generations of an entire family of Muslims in Nanjing, which resulted in only two survivors.
<br>
:''During the Japanese reign of terror in Nanking - which, by the way, continues to this day to a considerable degree - the Reverend John Magee, a member of the American Episcopal Church Mission who has been here for almost a quarter of a century, took motion pictures that eloquently bear witness to the atrocities committed by the Japanese. One will have to wait and see whether the highest officers in the Japanese army succeed, as they have indicated, in stopping the activities of their troops, which continue even today.'' 

:''On December 13th, about 30 soldiers came to a Chinese house at #5 Hsing Lu Koo in the southeastern part of Nanking, and demanded entrance. The door was open by the landlord, a Mohammedan [Muslim] named Ha. They killed him immediately with a revolver and also Mrs. Ha, who knelt before them after Ha's death, begging them not to kill anyone else. Mrs. ha asked them why they killed her husband and they shot her. Mrs. Hsia was dragged out from under a table in the guest hall where she had tried to hide with her one-year old baby. After being stripped and raped by one or more men, she was bayoneted in the chest, and then had a bottle thrust into her vagina, the baby being killed with a bayonet.'' 

:''Some soldiers then went to the next room where were Mrs. Hsia's parents, aged 76 and 74, and he two daughters aged 16 and 14. They were about to rape the girls when the grandmother tried to protect them. The soldiers killed her with a revolver. The grandfather grasped the body of his wife and was killed. The two girls were then stripped, the older being raped by 2-3 men, and the younger by 3. The older girl was stabbed afterwards and a cane was rammed into her vagina. The younger girl was bayoneted also but was spared the horrible treatment that had been meted out to her sister and her mother.'' 

:''The soldiers then bayoneted another sister of between 7-8, who was also in the room. The last murders in the house were of Ha's two children, aged 4 and 2 years respectively. The older was bayoneted and the younger split down through the head with a sword. After being wounded the 8 year old girl crawled to the next room where lay the body of her mother. Here she stayed for 14 days with her 4 year old sister who had escaped unharmed. The two children lived on puffed rice and the rice crusts that form in the pan when the rice is cooked. ''

:''It was from the older of these children that the photographer was able to get part of the story, and verify and correct certain details told him by a neighbour and a relative. The child said the soldiers came every day taking things from the house, but the two children were not discovered as they hid under some old sheets''

:''...[A]fter 14 days the old woman...returned to the neighbourhood and found the two children. It was she who led the photographer to an open space where the bodies had been taken afterwards. Through questioning her and Mrs. Hsia's brother and the little girl, a clear knowledge of the terrible traged was gained. The picture shows the bodies of the 16 and 14 year old girls, each lying in a group of people slain at the same time. Mrs. Hsia and her baby are shown last.''

::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::—Rev. John Magee, American Episcopal Church Mission, and resident in China for 25 years.<ref name="Lu2004">Suping Lu (1 November 2004). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0a7UAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA118&dq=Mrs.+Ha+asked+them+why+they+killed+her+husband+and+they+shot+her.+Mrs.+Hsia+was+dragged+out+from+under+a+table+in+the+guest+hall+where+she+had+tried+to+hide+with+her+1+year+old+baby.&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjsrt3cyqbOAhXLKMAKHYOyAkoQ6AEIHjAA#v=onepage&q=Mrs.%20Ha%20asked%20them%20why%20they%20killed%20her%20husband%20and%20they%20shot%20her.%20Mrs.%20Hsia%20was%20dragged%20out%20from%20under%20a%20table%20in%20the%20guest%20hall%20where%20she%20had%20tried%20to%20hide%20with%20her%201%20year%20old%20baby.&f=false They Were in Nanjing: The Nanjing Massacre Witnessed by American and British Nationals]''. Hong Kong University Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-962-209-685-1.</ref><ref name="Stich2010">Rodney Stich (2010). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d-44dpgvU0YC&pg=PA10 Japanese and U.S. World War II Plunder and Intrigue]''. Silverpeak Enterprises. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-932438-70-6.</ref> 
</div>
|}

[[File:2fd878f745f14ddc8cfc2b0955426e4f.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">Xia Shuqin, 84 years old now.</div>]]
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<small style="border:1px solid; padding:1px 3px; background:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF; white-space:nowrap">Survivor:—</small> The little 8-year old girl that survived,<ref name="xiabbc"/> would go on to live well into her eighties, and is still currently alive.<ref name="xia75">''[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-06/07/content_449425.htm Survivor tells of Nanjing massacre horrors]''. July 7th, 2005. China Daily. Retrieved August 4th, 2016.</ref> In 2005, the China Daily wrote a biographical piece of her ordeal that had occurred 67 years prior to the interview.<ref name="xia75"/> In 2005, she was 75 years old, and recounted the story of the murder of her family members and neighbours.<ref name="xia75"/> Horrendously, Japanese revisionist historians Higashinakano Osamu and Magsumura Goshio questioned the veracity of her family's murder during the mid-1990s, and the overall massacre at Nanjing.<ref name="xia75"/> The accusations prompted her to act so much so that she sued the books publishers in Chian for ¥800,000 yuan ($96,600 dollars) in 2000; exclaiming ''"I survived from the pile of dead bodies, how could I be a fake witness?...I just want to be healthy so I can sue them to the end"''.<ref name="xia75"/> The Chinese themselves had previously caved into Japanese pressure, as China needed trade in the 1970s, and had therefore dropped wartime reparation claims.<ref name="xia75"/> It was not until the 1990s did China finally pluck up the courage to challenge the Japanese worldview.<ref name="xia75"/> This was in direct response to the Japanese becoming nationalistic, with right-wing parties growing even more boisterous in the politics of the island nation.<ref name="xia75"/> The BBC reported that ''"[i]n tears, she told a news conference how Japanese soldiers slaughtered seven out of nine members of her immediate family, and how she heard the cries of her sister as she was raped with her mother"''.<ref name="xiabbc">''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1047188.stm Nanjing survivor sues Japanese authors]''. Wednesday, November 29th, 2000. Retrieved August 4th, 2016.</ref><ref group="n.">She eventually won the ruling against the Japanese authors, who represented Asia University, Japan. She had originally sued for ¥15 million yen, but received ¥4 million yen ($44,500 dollars) instead from the Tokyo District Court and The Supreme Court of Japan.
#''[http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2009/02/07/news/author-on-nanjing-loses-libel-appeal/#.V6M0HPkrI2w Author on Nanjing loses libel appeal]''. February 7th, 2009. The Japan Times. Retrieved August 4th, 2016.
#''[http://en.people.cn/90001/90776/90883/6587967.html Chinese hail Nanjing Massacre witness' libel suit victory]''. February 9th, 2009. People's Daily Online. Retrieved August 4th, 2016.</ref> A total ofbetween 50,000—340,000 Chinese died in the massacre.<ref name="Ristaino2008">Marcia R. Ristaino (2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MbeT3r-bAfUC&pg=PA91&dq=nanjing+60,000+300,000+massacre&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjIt9Tj66fOAhXCtxQKHbvjCvgQ6AEIHjAA#v=onepage&q=nanjing%2060%2C000%20300%2C000%20massacre&f=false The Jacquinot Safe Zone: Wartime Refugees in Shanghai]''. Stanford University Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-8047-5793-5.</ref>
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===Organization===
[[File:001372acd73d10624dd80e.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">Clandestine "Kempeitei" agents.</div>]]
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<small style="border:1px solid; padding:1px 3px; background:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF; white-space:nowrap">Bio-Research:—</small> Unit 731 was a Japanese biological warfare<ref name="McCallum2008">Jack Edward McCallum (2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5BXB9QtUfFQC&pg=PA337&dq=Unit+731&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi-nJe5lIfKAhUHyRQKHRXkAbsQ6AEISzAH#v=onepage&q=Unit%20731&f=false Military Medicine: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century]''. ABC-CLIO. p. 337. ISBN 978-1-85109-693-0.</ref> and research unit based in China, Manchuria, consisting of several divisions. It's origins lay in 1894,<ref name="McCallum2008"/> when Japanese medical officers performed particularly poorly during combat with Chinese forces in East Asia.<ref name="McCallum2008"/> Japanese physicians were eventually sent over to Europe by the Japanese government in order to learn modern medical techniques.<ref name="McCallum2008"/> The Japanese would surpass the Europeans and arguably,<ref name="McCallum2008"/> had the best military medical system the world have ever seen.<ref name="McCallum2008"/> This was especially the case with controlling infectious disease, pathogens and epidemics.<ref name="McCallum2008"/> Fascination with bacteria grew to dangerous heights and eventually lead to bacterial weaponization.<ref name="McCallum2008"/> In the year of 1932, the ''"Epidemic Prevention Laboratory"'', otherwise known as ''"Unit 731"'' (headed by General and Surgeon-doctor<ref name="CroddyWirtz2005">Eric Croddy; James J. Wirtz (2005). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZzlNgS70OHAC&pg=PA295&dq=Unit+731&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwia3bbFm4fKAhWBOxQKHaGfAQI4ChDoAQgwMAI#v=onepage&q=Unit%20731&f=false Weapons of Mass Destruction: Chemical and biological weapons]''. ABC-CLIO. p. 295. ISBN 978-1-85109-490-5.</ref> Shiro Ishii), moved from their headquarters in Tokyo to Pingfang, China,<ref name="McCallum2008"/> where they would conduct biological research on Chinese civilians,<ref name="McCallum2008"/> It consisted of 150 laboratory buildings and 5 external campsites.<ref name="Enemark2007">Christian Enemark (11 June 2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aDT-qkChBnAC&pg=PA87&dq=unit+731+shot+wounds&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjDw72GnY3KAhVDvhQKHfu_ANUQ6AEIPDAF#v=onepage&q=unit%20731%20shot%20wounds&f=false Disease and Security: Natural Plagues and Biological Weapons in East Asia]''. Routledge. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-134-10133-7.</ref> A secret military police force, known as the "Kempeitei",<ref name="McCallum2008"/> abducted thousands of Chinese civilians for Unit 731, who's specialty lay in typhoid experimentation;<ref name="McCallum2008"/> as well as glanders disease,<ref name="McCallum2008"/> hemorrhagic fever<ref name="McCallum2008"/> and bubonic plague.<ref name="McCallum2008"/> It was set up under the premise it was a Japanese ''"lumber mill"'',<ref name="Neil Connor (February 12, 2015).">Neil Connor (February 12, 2015). ''[http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/02/12/national/history/70-years-unit-731s-wartime-atrocities-fester-chinas-memory/#.VohUtPmLSKp 70 years on, Unit 731’s wartime atrocities fester in China’s memory]''. The Japan Times. Retrieved January, 2nd, 2016.</ref> and victims were referred to as "logs" ("maruta"/丸太).<ref name="Chauhan2004"/><ref name="Gruhl2011"/><ref name="Fridell2007">Ron Fridell (1 September 2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Xuu6HqD-qpQC&pg=PA46&dq=pressure+chambers+unit+731&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjot7OUoo3KAhWMWRQKHVEUCC0Q6AEIPzAD#v=onepage&q=pressure%20chambers%20unit%20731&f=false Prisoners of War]''. Marshall Cavendish. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-7614-2577-9.</ref> Additionally, those who were assigned to the unit were told ''"don't look, don't listen, don't tell"''.<ref name="Chauhan2004">Sharad S. Chauhan (1 January 2004). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MGZwgxoHxCAC&pg=PA191&dq=Unit+731&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwia3bbFm4fKAhWBOxQKHaGfAQI4ChDoAQgrMAE#v=onepage&q=Unit%20731&f=false Biological Weapons]''. APH Publishing. p. 191-192. ISBN 978-81-7648-732-0.</ref>
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{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
*Division 1: Bubonic Plague, Cholera, Anthrax, Tuberculosis
*Division 2: Biological Weapons & Invention
{{col-break}}
*Division 3: Artillery Shells & Ammunition Production
*Division 4: Lethal Chemicals Producton
{{col-break}}
*Division 5: Unit 731 Personnel Training
*Division 6: Administrative Division of Camps, Medical Supplies & Equipment
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
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[[File:Unit 731 aerial photo.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">Unit 731 aerial photo. A crematorium is visible.</div>]]
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<small style="border:1px solid; padding:1px 3px; background:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF; white-space:nowrap">Victim Treatment:—</small> Victims were kept shackled, but were well fed and exercised; former staff at the facility stated that this was because ''"[u]nless you work with a healthy body, you can't get results"''.<ref name="Felton2012">Mark Felton (19 July 2012). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pg30akVyjZgC&pg=PT36&dq=Unit+731+was+divided+into+eight+divisions:&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjkyuPr3YnKAhWGShQKHbhVBVEQ6AEIIDAA#v=onepage&q=Unit%20731%20was%20divided%20into%20eight%20divisions%3A&f=false The Devil's Doctors: Japanese Human Experiments on Allied Prisoners of War]''. Casemate Publishers. pp. 36–37. ISBN 978-1-78303-262-4.</ref> Men, women and children were used.<ref name="Felton2012"/> It is notable that Japanese doctors refused to allow the use of anaethetics,<ref name="Gruhl2011">Werner Gruhl (31 December 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zNN6M97vYMEC&pg=PA81&dq=japanese+unit+731+weapons+testing&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjY5rPShIvKAhXBXBQKHUltCYg4ChDoAQgfMAA#v=onepage&q=japanese%20unit%20731%20weapons%20testing&f=false Imperial Japan's World War Two: 1931-1945]''. Transaction Publishers. pp. 81–86. ISBN 978-1-4128-0926-9.</ref> believing they would interfere with research, and so were not used when subjects were dismembered.<ref name="Felton2012"/> A medicial assistant working in this area of research said test subjects knew it was ''"over"'' for them and went along quietly.<ref name="Felton2012"/> However upon seeing a scalpel the subject would repeatedly scream, with their face ''"twisting"'' in agony.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Approximately 70% of the victims were of Chinese origin, and 30% were a mixture of Soviet, Mongolian and Korean.<ref name="oxford">''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XXkMAQAAMAAJ&q=unit+731+70%25+Chinese&dq=unit+731+70%25+Chinese&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjpo833yIvKAhWD7RQKHf7kA5kQ6AEIKTAA Asiaweek]''. Asiaweek Limited. May 1982. Volume 8. p. 52</ref> The ''"Oxford Textbook of Clinical Research Ethics''" (2011), in a sub section written by Takashi Tsuchiya, claim however that most were Chinese and some were soldiers of the Allies, who were mostly American, Australian or New Zealander.<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011">Ezekiel J. Emanuel; Christine C. Grady; Robert A. Crouch; Reidar K. Lie, Franklin G. Miller, David D. Wendler (4 January 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vKFYAtcLAxgC&pg=PA34&dq=japanese+unit+731+weapons+testing&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiX3fPChIvKAhXM6xQKHYA_DIcQ6AEIRjAH#v=onepage&q=japanese%20unit%20731%20weapons%20testing&f=false The Oxford Textbook of Clinical Research Ethics]''. Oxford University Press. pp. 31–45. ISBN 978-0-19-972166-5. </ref> It's annual budget was $80 million dollars (in 2011 dollars), with 3,000 scientists and researchers employed under Dr. Ishii for a total of 10 years (bringing total funding up to $800 million dollars).<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/> It was said to have been lavished so well that it was the most luxurious research center in all of Japan's empire.<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/> Those employed at Unit 731 had half the budget as payment, while the rest went on research.<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/> All surviving data was then sold to the USA for ¥250,000 yen ($2 million in 2011 dollars).<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/>
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[[File:731child.jpg|thumb|center|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">Japanese dissecting a small child, after vivisection.</div>]]
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<small style="border:1px solid; padding:1px 3px; background:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF; white-space:nowrap">Death Toll:—</small> Unit 731 developed a delivery systems for weaponized bubonic plague (as well as anthrax, and tetanus) using fleas contained in porcelain bombs;<ref name="Enemark2007"/><ref name="WilliamsWallace1989">Peter Williams; David Wallace (1989). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2Ls4AAAAIAAJ&q=unit+731+shot+wounds&dq=unit+731+shot+wounds&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjDw72GnY3KAhVDvhQKHfu_ANUQ6AEIMDAD Unit 731: Japan's Secret Biological Warfare in World War II]''. Free Press. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-02-935301-1.</ref> embedded in cotton, rice and wheat.<ref name="McCallum2008"/> These were dropped across several cities in Chechiang.<ref name="McCallum2008"/> This first attempt at infecting the Chinese ended in almost total failure; causing the deaths of only 24 people.<ref name="McCallum2008"/> Ningbo, Zhejiang Province (1940) and Changde (1941) were later used as test cities, but these were far more deadly, killing an estimated 400,000 Chinese.<ref name="Felton2012"/> The numbers estimated for germ warfare have been somewhat disputed, ranging from 50,000 to 250,000 by Western historians.<ref name="Gruhl2011"/> Three years after the war had ended, there were still many Chinese dying from these bombings.<ref name="Felton2012"/> By the end of the war it's death toll exceeded that of the atomic bombings of Nagasaki and Hiroshima.<ref name="Felton2012"/> The Chinese were not only affected but Japanese; approximately 1,700 Japanese soldiers were also killed in a Cholera outbreak that backfired and infected 10,000 Japanese soldiers in Changteh (1941).<ref name="Piehler2013">G. Kurt Piehler (24 July 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5yVzAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1627&dq=japanese+unit+731+weapons+testing&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjY5rPShIvKAhXBXBQKHUltCYg4ChDoAQglMAE#v=onepage&q=japanese%20unit%20731%20weapons%20testing&f=false Encyclopedia of Military Science]''. SAGE Publications. p. 1627. ISBN 978-1-4522-7632-8.</ref> Former employees of Unit 731 also even went on to murder Japanese citizens after the war.<ref name="Inc.1989">Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. (December 1989). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8wUAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA47&dq=unit+731&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiXgrSy1onKAhVBuhQKHVcaAqcQ6AEIJTAB#v=onepage&q=unit%20731&f=false Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]''. Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. pp. 47. ISSN 00963402.</ref> In late January 1948 for example, one of it's unbeknownst members entered a Tokyo bank where the suspect recognized an employee suffering from symptoms of dysentery.<ref name="Inc.1989"/> He tricked all 17 staff members into letting him administer a toxic poison,<ref name="Inc.1989"/> killing 12 of them immediately.<ref name="Inc.1989"/> He made off with a ¥160,000 yen in cash.<ref name="Inc.1989"/><ref group="n.">Dr. Ishii was even called in when it became clear that the method of administration and death was similar to that done in Manchuria several years prior at his facility.
#Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. (December 1989). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8wUAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA47&dq=unit+731&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiXgrSy1onKAhVBuhQKHVcaAqcQ6AEIJTAB#v=onepage&q=unit%20731&f=false Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]''. Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. pp. 47. ISSN 00963402.</ref>
</div>

===Known Experiments===
<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">
[[File:Interogation.jpg|thumb|right|1000px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">The "Kempeitei" (secret police) would round up Chinese and political dissidents for Dr. Ishii's experiments. Ishii was very well funded by the Japanese government.</div>]]
*<small style="border: 1px solid;padding:1px 3px;white-space:nowrap">Live Vivisection Research:—</small> Body organs such as the stomach (including that of the oesophagus) were removed and reattached to the intestines.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Infants in particular were tied down, and were said to have been screaming for their mothers while experiments were being done on their bodies.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Brains, kidney's and lungs were also removed under these vivisections.<ref name="Felton2012"/> In one instance, a test subject was immediately tied down, and had an axe driven through his skull and had his brain removed upon short notice.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Japanese who even contracted disease during experiments were also dissected and vivisected.<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/>

*<small style="border: 1px solid;padding:1px 3px;white-space:nowrap">Blood Loss & Amputation Research:—</small> Limbs were amputated to study the loss of blood from the human body.<ref name="Felton2012"/> In some cases surgeons would reattach torn limbs to different parts of the body, including reattaching legs to arm sockets.<ref name="Felton2012"/> In other instances, limbs were defrosted to cause the onset of gangrene which would never be treated.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Defrosting, gangrene and pain were also studied extensively.<ref name="Felton2012"/><ref name="Takemae2003"/> Additionally, horse urine was injected into the kidneys (presumably to study the effects of renal clearance), gasoline and prussic acid,<ref name="Winchester1998">Simon Winchester (26 February 1998). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zJari8SimAUC&pg=PT179&dq=unit+731+horse+urine+was+injected&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjouP6_m43KAhXM7BQKHdmbAGUQ6AEIODAE#v=onepage&q=unit%20731%20horse%20urine%20was%20injected&f=false The River at the Centre of the World: A Journey Up the Yangtze, and Back in Chinese Time]''. Penguin UK. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-14-193790-8.</ref> as well as air to cause blood clots.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Blood transfusions were also done with various blood types.<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/><ref name="Kennedy2007">David M. Kennedy (2 October 2007). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0bRaa7UuD6EC&pg=PA655&dq=Unit+731+blood+transfusions&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiY7bWrmY3KAhWEXhQKHcWzC_EQ6AEIKTAC#v=onepage&q=Unit%20731%20blood%20transfusions&f=false The Library of Congress World War II Companion]''. Simon and Schuster. p. 655. ISBN 978-1-4165-5306-9.</ref> For instance a person with "Group O" blood was transfused with someone who had "Group A" blood,<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/> leading to immune attack and death.

*<small style="border: 1px solid;padding:1px 3px;white-space:nowrap">Freezing Limbs & Gangrene Research:—</small> Freezing experiments were also conducted in relation to amputations;<ref name="Felton2012"/><ref name="Takemae2003"/> where limbs were frozen and then cut off and then reattached.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Test subjects were also soaked with water and then tied naked to stakes during the winter months in order to accelerate the effects of freezing.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Confirmation of limbs freezing checked by hitting body parts with a stick until a hard and hollow sound could be heard emanating from the limb.<ref name="Felton2012"/>  In another instance two Chinese clawed each other when put in a -40<sup>o</sup>C to -50<sup>o</sup>C chamber.<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/> This research is still being used to study the effects of frostbite.<ref name="Felton2012"/>

[[File:Soldiers-unit-731.jpg|thumb|left|200px|<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">One of the most horrific experiments was freezing subjects until a hollow sound could be heard when they were struck with a stick.</div>]]
::::::::::*<small style="border: 1px solid;padding:1px 3px;white-space:nowrap">Weapons Testing & Development Research:—</small> Test subjects were tied to stakes at different weapons testing ranges in order to test the effects of grenade blast radii.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Others were directly shot and had their exit wound and entries studied,<ref name="Stannard2004"> Louis Stannard (2004). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iExPk4LRHwoC&dq=unit+731+gun+shot+wounds&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=gun+shot+wounds China Diaries: A Novel]''. iUniverse. p. 214. ISBN 978-0-595-66652-2.</ref><ref name="gunshotphysician">''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dsYrAAAAYAAJ&q=unit+731+gun+shot+wounds&dq=unit+731+gun+shot+wounds&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj0r7PdoI3KAhUKaRQKHTYrDFUQ6AEISjAG Military Chaplains' Review]''. Chaplains, U.S. Army. 1991. p. 13.</ref> later being killed if they survived.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Flamethrowers were also used on test subjects in order to find the most effective range for deployment on field.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Human subjects were also placed into glass gas chambers;<ref name="Gruhl2011"/> for the purposes of chemical weapons testing in the form of gases.<ref name="Felton2012"/> There were even chambers used for pressure testing and G-force experiments until they died violently.<ref name="Felton2012"/><ref name="Gruhl2011"/><ref name="NieGuo2013"> Jing Bao Nie; Nanyan Guo; Mark Selden; Arthur Kleinman (3 July 2013). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mYDFBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT110&dq=pressure+chambers+unit+731&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjot7OUoo3KAhWMWRQKHVEUCC0Q6AEILjAA#v=onepage&q=pressure%20chambers%20unit%20731&f=false Japan's Wartime Medical Atrocities: Comparative Inquiries in Science, History, and Ethics]''. Routledge. p. 110. ISBN 978-1-136-95259-3.</ref><ref name="MooreSholes2011">Joe Moore; Joe Sholes (1 September 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fgTse0yOb4gC&pg=PA236&dq=pressure+chambers+unit+731&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjot7OUoo3KAhWMWRQKHVEUCC0Q6AEISjAF#v=onepage&q=pressure%20chambers%20unit%20731&f=false The 731 Legacy]''. Llewellyn Worldwide. p. 236. ISBN 978-0-7387-2045-6.</ref><ref group="n.">Camera men would record Chinese dying slowly in pressure chambers.
#Sheldon H. Harris (3 May 2002). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-QSIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA71&dq=pressure+chambers+unit+731&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjot7OUoo3KAhWMWRQKHVEUCC0Q6AEIOTAC#v=onepage&q=pressure%20chambers%20unit%20731&f=false Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932-45, and the American Cover-up]''. Routledge. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-134-82751-0.</ref>

::::::::::*<small style="border: 1px solid;padding:1px 3px;white-space:nowrap">Biological & Chemical Research:—</small> Victims were sent to biological and chemical testing sites;<ref name="Felton2012"/> where they were exposed to lethal doses of pathogens and chemicals.<ref name="Felton2012"/> These were later developed into bombs which were regularly thrown from aircraft onto densely populated Chinese civilian areas in order to test epidemic capabilities.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Test subjects were also made into flea producing factories;<ref name="Felton2012"/> where billions of fleas were bred for the development of biological bombs through hosting.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Approximately 3,000,000—8,000,000 rats, and other animals were infected for epidemic research and flea production.<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/><ref name="Li">Peter Li. ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2J0ZqRZw-QQC&pg=PA296&dq=units+731+rats+million&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi7saSbpY3KAhUCXRQKHX7XBokQ6AEILjAC#v=onepage&q=units%20731%20rats%20million&f=false Japanese War Crimes: The Search for Justice]''. Transaction Publishers. p. 296. ISBN 978-1-4128-2683-9.</ref><ref name="Gruhl20112">Werner Gruhl (31 December 2011). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zNN6M97vYMEC&pg=PA81&dq=units+731+rats+million&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi7saSbpY3KAhUCXRQKHX7XBokQ6AEIIjAA#v=onepage&q=units%20731%20rats%20million&f=false Imperial Japan's World War Two: 1931-1945]''. Transaction Publishers. p. 81. ISBN 978-1-4128-0926-9.</ref>

::::::::::*<small style="border: 1px solid;padding:1px 3px;white-space:nowrap">Sexual Research:—</small> Prisoners were tricked into receiving vaccinations;<ref name="Felton2012"/> when they were really injected with sexually transmitted diseases such as gonorrhea and syphyllis.<ref name="Felton2012"/><ref name="Takemae2003"> Eiji Takemae (2003). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ba5hXsfeyhMC&pg=PA255&dq=pressure+chambers+unit+731&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjot7OUoo3KAhWMWRQKHVEUCC0Q6AEIUDAG#v=onepage&q=pressure%20chambers%20unit%20731&f=false Allied Occupation of Japan]''. A&C Black. p. 255. ISBN 978-0-8264-1521-9.</ref> Although penicillins were available during this time, the Japanese simply let these diseases develop and then studied the effects.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Transmission of the diseases was also by means of rape.<ref name="Felton2012"/> Doctors at the test site would rape prisoners in order to get them pregnant and then study the results.<ref name="Felton2012"/> These women would be dissected alive either before or after birth, and their fetus's removed.<ref name="Felton2012"/><ref name="WilliamsWallace19892">Peter Williams; David Wallace (1989). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2Ls4AAAAIAAJ&q=unit+731+venereal+disease&dq=unit+731+venereal+disease&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwislIz3rI3KAhWCORQKHSmKCuwQ6AEIJTAB Unit 731: Japan's Secret Biological Warfare in World War II]''. Free Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-02-935301-1.</ref> They were also infected with other venereal diseases.<ref name="Gruhl2011"/><ref group="n.">The purpose of this research was to investigate venereal disease, which was a massive problem for Japanese soldiers who were ordered to rape civilians. As a result many contracted venereal diseases. 
#Peter Williams; David Wallace (1989). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2Ls4AAAAIAAJ&q=unit+731+venereal+disease&dq=unit+731+venereal+disease&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwislIz3rI3KAhWCORQKHSmKCuwQ6AEIJTAB Unit 731: Japan's Secret Biological Warfare in World War II]''. Free Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-02-935301-1.</ref>
</div>

===Known Members===
<div style="text-align:justify; word-spacing: -0.1em; letter-spacing: -0em; line-height:100%; width:100%;">
<small style="border:1px solid; padding:1px 3px; background:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF; white-space:nowrap">Employees:—</small> The biological weapons complex consisted of 3,000 employees.<ref name="Enemark2007"/> Manchuria was chosen because of it's poor sanitation conditions, and previous outbreaks of infectious diseases such as Cholera (1919) and the Pneumonic Plague (1910, 1920, 1927).<ref name="Enemark2007"/> It is notable that the Japanese brutality of their enemies was unusually equal across all nationalities.<ref name="CarmichaelMaguire2015">Cathie Carmichael; Richard C. Maguire (1 May 2015). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6rvlCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA106&dq=unit+731+shot+wounds&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjDw72GnY3KAhVDvhQKHfu_ANUQ6AEIKzAC#v=onepage&q=unit%20731%20shot%20wounds&f=false The Routledge History of Genocide]''. Routledge. p. 107. ISBN 978-1-317-51484-8.</ref> The first prosecutions against Unit 731 were when 12 soldiers and scientists were tried in the Soviet Union (in Khabarovsk, Siberia), where the unit's activities first began seeping into the public domain;<ref name="Inc.1989"/> in 1950 trial records were published by the authorities, which stipulated 3,000 Chinese victims and political dissidents were subjected to 10 years worth of experimentation.<ref name="Inc.1989"/> The Americans however, repeatedly attempted to cover this up; primarily because they wanted to use the data for themselves. The United States gave total immunity to anyone who was involved.<ref name="Inc.1989"/> At least 11 cities were attacked, and (according to Western historians) 10,000 people died in these experiments, although Chinese and Japanese historians claim a much higher number of 270,000 from 1932 to 1945.<ref name="Drexler2002">Madeline Drexler (6 February 2002). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IE53AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA245&dq=unit+731+venereal+disease&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwislIz3rI3KAhWCORQKHSmKCuwQ6AEIPDAF#v=onepage&q=unit%20731%20venereal%20disease&f=false Secret Agents: The Menace of Emerging Infections]''. Joseph Henry Press. p. 245. ISBN 978-0-309-51085-1.</ref> Notable members include Ryoichi Naito, Masaji Kitano, Hideo Futagi—Founders of Japan Blood Bank,<ref name="「戦争と医学」展実行委員会2008">「戦争と医学」展実行委員会 (April 2008). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZsFYSLdnG3QC&pg=PA112&dq=Unit+731+blood+transfusions&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiY7bWrmY3KAhWEXhQKHcWzC_EQ6AEIIDAA#v=onepage&q=Unit%20731%20blood%20transfusions&f=false War and Medicine(ウォー・アンド・メディスン)]''. 株式会社　三恵社. pp. 112. ISBN 978-4-88361-618-3.</ref> Kameo Tasaki of the Department of Dermatology and Urology of Machuria Medical College, who was responsible for injection and infection experiments,<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/> Hisato Yoshimura, of the Faculty of Medicine at Kyoto Imperial University, and Kazuharu Tanimura of the Army Medical College in Tokyo<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/> who both oversaw separate freezing experiments using live human beings,<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/> Naco Ikeda, a doctor from Osaka who conducted tetanus and hemorrhagic fever experiments,<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/> Satoshi Sugawara—salt water torture.<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/> Takeshi Ogasawara—air injection.<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/> and Naokiti Suzuki—brain vivisections.<ref name="EmanuelGrady2011"/> Other members include Yoshio Shinozuka,<ref name="Li2">Peter Li. ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2J0ZqRZw-QQC&pg=PA297&dq=%22member+of+Unit+731%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiV5JmS8qfKAhUM6RQKHTAgDfEQ6AEIIDAA#v=onepage&q=%22member%20of%20Unit%20731%22&f=false Japanese War Crimes: The Search for Justice]''. Transaction Publishers. p. 297. ISBN 978-1-4128-2683-9.</ref> Ueda Yataro<ref name="Tanaka1996">Toshiyuki Tanaka (1996). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bPNmAAAAMAAJ&q=%22member+of+Unit+731%22&dq=%22member+of+Unit+731%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiV5JmS8qfKAhUM6RQKHTAgDfEQ6AEIRzAI Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II]''. WestviewPress. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-8133-2717-4.</ref> and Hisato Yoshimura<ref name="Inc.19892">Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. (December 1989). ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8wUAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA47&dq=%22member+of+Unit+731%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiV5JmS8qfKAhUM6RQKHTAgDfEQ6AEIJTAB#v=onepage&q=%22member%20of%20Unit%20731%22&f=false Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]''. Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. p. 47. ISSN 00963402</ref></div>
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==Sources==
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'''Footnotes'''
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{{reflist|group="n."|4}}
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'''References'''
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{{reflist|3}}
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==External Links==
*[[History of the Muslim Peoples & Islamic Culture in Japan (1700—Present)]]